| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Departments of 1 Medicine and 2 Radiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261; and 3 School of Physical and Health Education, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
The purpose of
this investigation was to validate that in vivo measurement of skeletal
muscle attenuation (MA) with computed tomography (CT) is associated
with muscle lipid content. Single-slice CT scans performed on phantoms
of varying lipid concentrations revealed good concordance between
attenuation and lipid concentration (r2 = 0.995); increasing the phantom's lipid concentration by 1 g/100 ml
decreased its attenuation by ~1 Hounsfield unit (HU). The test-retest coefficient of variation for two CT scans performed in six volunteers was 0.51% for the midthigh and 0.85% for the midcalf, indicating that
the methodological variability is low. Lean subjects had significantly
higher (P < 0.01) MA values (49.2 ± 2.8 HU) than did obese nondiabetic (39.3 ± 7.5 HU) and obese Type 2 diabetic (33.9 ± 4.1 HU) subjects, whereas obese Type 2 diabetic subjects had lower MA values that were not different from obese nondiabetic subjects. There was also good concordance between MA in midthigh and midcalf (r = 0.60, P < 0.01),
psoas (r = 0.65, P < 0.01), and
erector spinae (r = 0.77, P < 0.01) in
subsets of volunteers. In 45 men and women who ranged from lean to
obese (body mass index = 18.5 to 35.9 kg/m2),
including 10 patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus, reduced MA was
associated with increased muscle fiber lipid content determined with
histological oil red O staining (P = 
0.43,
P < 0.01). In a subset of these volunteers
(n = 19), triglyceride content in percutaneous biopsy
specimens from vastus lateralis was also associated with MA
(r = 0.58, P = 0.019). We conclude
that the attenuation of skeletal muscle in vivo determined by CT is
related to its lipid content and that this noninvasive method may
provide additional information regarding the association between muscle
composition and muscle function.
triglyceride; body composition; obesity; Type 2 diabetes mellitus
| |
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
LIPID CONTAINED WITHIN SKELETAL muscle plays an important role in its function, as demonstrated in recent studies linking muscle triglyceride (TG) content to a reduced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake (9, 21, 23) and to reductions in glycogen synthase activity (21) within muscle. An increased muscle lipid content has also been noted in older persons (5, 26) and in association with muscle wasting diseases (13, 18, 19). However, muscle TG are capable of providing a substantial proportion of energy to exercising muscles (12, 25, 27). Additional data concerning lipid contained within muscle will provide a better understanding of its role in both normal and impaired muscle function. Unfortunately, the majority of studies concerning TG content in human muscle have employed the invasive percutaneous muscle biopsy procedure for the measurement of TG within a small sample (12, 21, 23). Thus the recent interest in the implications of skeletal muscle lipid content has been an impetus to develop noninvasive methods such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1) and computed tomography (CT) (8, 9) for in vivo determination of skeletal muscle lipid.
CT is capable of distinguishing different tissue types in vivo on the basis of their attenuation characteristics, which, in turn, are a function of tissue density and chemical composition (2). Attenuation values determined by CT are expressed in Hounsfield units (HU), on the basis of a linear scale using water as the reference (0 HU). For example, CT can clearly discern fat from muscle because fat displays negative attenuation values, whereas attenuation for muscle is positive, and CT attenuation is sensitive to proton content per unit mass, which is high in adipose tissue. The detailed spatial maps of attenuation coefficients provided by CT can be used to quantify tissue areas within a specific range of attenuation values and the mean tissue attenuation. A few earlier studies have realized the quantitative potential of CT to describe muscle composition and have found association between a reduced skeletal muscle attenuation on CT and diminished muscular strength in patients suffering from neurological disease (20) and Duchenne muscular dystrophy (18). Our laboratory has observed that the mean attenuation within skeletal muscle is reduced in obesity and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (15); that there are strong associations among reduced muscle attenuation and low aerobic capacity (9), a diminished oxidative enzyme capacity within muscle (28), insulin resistance (9, 28), and a blunted lipolytic response by insulin (14); and that weight loss increases the mean attenuation value of muscle (8).
On the basis of these observations, and considering the chemical basis of attenuation characteristics, we have hypothesized that reduced attenuation of skeletal muscle in obese subjects represents an increased lipid content. The aim of this investigation was to ascertain whether the CT measurement of muscle attenuation is an indicator of muscle lipid content in vivo. Collateral aims were to determine the methodological variance in muscle attenuation and to determine the variance in muscle attenuation within and between different muscle groups.
| |
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
CT attenuation of lipid emulsion phantoms. All scans of lipid emulsion phantoms were performed with either a CT-Hi Speed Advantage or HiSpeed CT/i CT scanner (General Electric, Milwaukee, WI). Phantoms containing 0, 2, 4, and 6 g/100 ml lipid emulsion (Baxter, Deerfield, IL) were placed in 700-ml plastic containers and scanned individually. Scan parameters were set at 120 kVp for 1 s (170 mA) by using a 25-cm field of view (FOV) and a 512 × 512 matrix. Four scans were performed on each phantom to determine the test-retest reliability of the attenuation measurement.
Recent advances in CT technology have stimulated interest in helical CT scanning, resulting in faster imaging and potentially providing more information about tissue with less radiation exposure. A set of helical CT scans was performed in another set of lipid phantoms to compare attenuation values in single-slice and helical CT and to determine the variability of attenuation values within the solution. To this aim, a series of helical and single-slice CT scans was performed on six phantoms containing varying lipid concentrations with a constant concentration of NaI to approximate the attenuation of skeletal muscle (~60 HU). For the helical scans, five images were collected on each phantom at 120 kVp for 1 s (340 mA), a FOV of 25 cm, and a matrix of 512 × 512, by using 10-mm continuous slices spaced 10 mm apart.Clinical studies. Forty-five men and women between the ages of 25 and 49 yr were recruited to this study. Before participation, all potential research volunteers underwent a medical screening evaluation, including a 2-h 75-g oral glucose tolerance test. Ten volunteers were patients who had Type 2 diabetes mellitus and were not receiving insulin or oral hypoglycemic medications. All volunteers were normotensive and had fasting plasma TG and cholesterol levels <300 mg/dl. None of the subjects was taking antihypertensive or lipid-lowering medications, and women taking oral contraceptives were excluded. None of the subjects was currently engaged in exercise training, and all were weight stable for a period not <3 mo. The study was approved by the University of Pittsburgh Institutional Review Board, and informed written consent was obtained from each subject.
CT. CT imaging (CT-Hi Speed Advantage, General Electric) was conducted at ~7:00 PM for each subject. With the subject supine, a 10-mm cross-sectional scan of both legs in each subject was obtained at the midpoint between the anterior superior iliac crest and the patella. Scans were obtained by using 170 mA, a 512 × 512 matrix, and 48-cm FOV, thereby attaining a pixel resolution of 0.94 mm. Skeletal muscle attenuation was measured for each subject as the mean attenuation value from all pixels within the range of 0-100 HU as previously described (9), thereby excluding most of the intermuscular, or "marbled," adipose tissue in the analysis. Because of the limited resolution of CT, however, depots of extracellular adipose tissue smaller than the pixel's resolution were not completely excluded.
Variability in muscle attenuation within and between muscle groups. To examine the variation in muscle attenuation within the midthigh, a series of three CT scans was performed in 20 nondiabetic volunteers. The first scan was obtained at the midpoint of the thigh as described in CT. The second and third images were obtained at exactly 40 and 80 mm inferior of the first image, respectively, and the mean muscle attenuation was determined in each image.
Associations between mean attenuation values from the midthigh and other distinct muscle groups were assessed by performing CT scans of the midthigh and midcalf in 15 subjects and of the psoas and erector spinae muscles in another subset of 45 volunteers. Scan parameters for both thigh and calf were the same as described in CT, and the location of the midthigh image was the same as before. The 10-mm midcalf CT scan was located at the point of the largest girth determined by external measurement. Both psoas and erector spinae muscle groups were located in cross-sectional scans centered at the L4-L5 vertebral disk. Mean muscle attenuation values were calculated for each muscle group.Test-rerest reliability of in vivo muscle attenuation. To appreciate the degree to which CT is able to determine the biological variability of muscle attenuation, it is important to examine the potential methodological variability of muscle attenuation in vivo. Therefore, we performed two separate single-slice CT scans of the midthigh and midcalf in three women and three men. The first set of scans was performed as described in CT; immediately afterward, the volunteer was removed from the scanner and repositioned, and landmarks were redefined for the second scan of both midthigh and midcalf.
Association between muscle attenuation and lipid content.
To test the hypothesis that CT attenuation characteristics of skeletal
muscle reflect muscle lipid content, CT scans of the midthigh and
percutaneous muscle biopies of the vastus lateralis were performed in
45 volunteers who ranged from lean to obese (body mass index = 18.5-35.9 kg/m2). Subjects were instructed not to
perform physical exercise 48 h before the muscle biopsy procedure
to help prevent acute effects of exercise on muscle TG
(12). Subjects were admitted to the General Clinical
Research Center where they were fed a standardized dinner (42 kJ/kg;
50% carbohydrate, 30% fat, 20% protein), had CT scans of the
midthigh, and then fasted overnight. The following morning, ~12 h
after completion of the CT scans, muscle biopsies were obtained from
the middle region of the vastus lateralis (15 cm above the patella) and
~2 cm away from the fascia by the percutaneous needle-biopsy
technique (4). Muscle specimens were trimmed of all
visible fat and connective tissue, mounted, and frozen in
isopentane cooled at 160°C by liquid nitrogen and stored at 80°C for histochemical analysis. Another sample from 19 subjects was frozen immediately in liquid nitrogen for lipid extraction and
subsequent TG determination by using a chloroform-ethanol method to
extract TG from the muscle biopsy specimen samples (6). Briefly, extracts were dried under nitrogen and hydrolyzed in KOH and
ethanol, and TG content was determined spectrophotometrically by using
a commercially available method (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO).
Statistical analysis.
Association between lipid concentration in lipid-emulsion phantoms or
muscle with mean attenuation was determined with simple linear
regression. Between-group differences in mean muscle attenuation were
determined with one-way analysis of variance. Probability was set at an
level of P = 0.05.
| |
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
CT attenuation of lipid emulsion phantoms.
The attenuation of various concentrations of lipid emulsions is
presented in Fig. 1. There was nearly
perfect linear agreement between the CT attenuation value and lipid
content of the phantoms (r = 0.997). Alteration of the
lipid content changed the mean attenuation value ~1 HU · 1 g
1 · 100 l lipid1. The low SD (0.3 HU) and coefficient of variation (CV; 9%) for four repeated
attenuation measures of the same solution indicates that the
attenuation within a homogenous phantom of lipid and water can be
measured reliably.
|
|
Variability in muscle attenuation within and between muscle groups.
Biological variability in muscle attenuation was examined to determine
whether this method is sensitive enough to detect potential between-subject differences in this measurement. The mean muscle attenuation values in 15 lean, 20 obese, and 10 obese diabetic subjects
(body mass index = 23.3 ± 0.8, 34.1 ± 0.7, and
36.2 ± 1.0 kg/m2, respectively) are presented in Fig.
2. Lean subjects had attenuation values
that were significantly higher than those of obese nondiabetic and
obese diabetic subjects, whereas attenuation values were not different
between obese diabetic and obese nondiabetic subjects. These data
demonstrate that the CT method used in the present study is capable of
detecting differences in mean muscle attenuation between groups of
obese and lean subjects.
|
|
|
|
Association between muscle attenuation and muscle lipid content.
Muscle attenuation determined in vivo with CT was associated with
muscle lipid content determined in muscle biopsy specimens of vastus
lateralis (Fig. 5). Lipid contained
within muscle fibers as determined with histochemical staining of lipid
was negatively associated with muscle attenuation (r = 0.43, P < 0.01). The TG content of muscle was
also negatively associated with muscle attenuation (r = 0.58, P = 0.019). These results concur with those from the histological staining data and suggest that muscle attenuation varies as a function of muscle lipid content.
|
| |
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
There has been a renewed interest in the health implications of lipid stored within skeletal muscle with respect to energy metabolism (3, 7, 11, 12, 16), obesity (8-10, 21), insulin resistance (9, 21, 23), and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (15, 29). Whereas much of the data concerning muscle lipid in humans have resulted from biopsies, few investigations have used noninvasive in vivo methods to quantify lipid contained within muscle. Our laboratory (8, 9, 15, 28) and others (13, 18, 19, 26) have utilized CT to quantify the composition of skeletal muscle. The question that arises is whether reduced attenuation in muscle reflects an increase in lipid content.
The primary findings of the present study confirm previous observations (19) that an increase in skeletal muscle lipid content is associated with a decrease in the CT attenuation values within muscle. The results from the lipid-emulsion phantom experiments demonstrate that the decrease in attenuation within a series of homogenous solutions occurs as a linear function of increasing lipid content. Increasing the lipid content within the solution by 1 g/100 ml decreased the mean attenuation by ~1 HU. These data are entirely consistent with the fact that attenuation coefficients determined by CT are based on a linear scale of tissue attenuation values relative to water, with the later as the reference set to 0 HU. Furthermore, the phantom studies demonstrate that the attenuation measurement is sensitive to small changes in lipid content. This point deserves further attention, because the absolute difference in muscle attenuation between lean and moderately obese subjects is relatively small (39.2 ± 0.8 vs. 35.9 ± 0.8 HU, respectively) (8). Data from the phantom studies suggest that this range of attenuation values may represent as much as a 3% difference in muscle fat content. No other studies have attempted to determine the direct association between muscle lipid content and attenuation determined by CT, and only one study has estimated the lipid content within muscle on the basis of the mean attenuation of muscle (13). Other evidence supporting the concept that attenuation is a marker of lipid contained within muscle comes from clinical weight-loss studies. Our laboratory found that identical calorie restriction-induced weight-loss programs reduced the lipid content within muscle by 1.3% (10) and increased the mean muscle attenuation by ~2 HU (8). Although the association between the change in lipid and the change in attenuation is similar to that observed in the present lipid emulsion experiments, additional intervention studies are needed to examine the concomitant changes in attenuation and muscle lipid content.
Another goal of the present study was to determine the methodological variability in muscle attenuation and the variability of muscle attenuation within and between muscle groups in vivo. The test-retest study found that the variance in muscle attenuation was <1%, indicating that there is little methodological variability in this measurement. The within-subject variance in muscle attenuation at three locations within the midthigh was only 1.3 HU. In addition, within the same individual, there was good correlation between attenuation in the midthigh and that of other distinct muscle groups. Although no other studies have compared the fat content in different muscle groups of the same individual, these results demonstrate that the variance in muscle attenuation in association with lipid content is consistent both within and between muscle groups.
The use of chemical phantoms represents a rigorous means to establish a criterion for direct comparison of attenuation and lipid concentration, and, in the present study, muscle tissue was also used. Muscle attenuation determined with CT was significantly associated with skeletal muscle lipid content measured by both biochemical extraction of TG and staining for neutral lipid within muscle fibers. These data indicate that reduced muscle attenuation determined by CT is partly due to lipid contained within the muscle fibers. The finding that an increasing muscle TG was also associated with decreased muscle attenuation corroborates these findings. Nevertheless, the amount of TG or lipid staining within the biopsy specimen accounted for only ~34 and 18%, respectively, of the variance in CT attenuation. Several reasons may explain the lack of strength in correlating muscle attenuation determined by CT and the muscle biopsy measurement of lipid content. First, extrapolation of lipid contained within a small biopsy specimen containing ~80 fibers to the lipid content of whole muscle is arduous, particularly because variability in the TG content in different biopsy samples from the same individual is quite high (31). Second, a careful attempt was made to exclude the extracellular lipid from the biopsy specimens, and, because of its limited resolution, CT is not capable of excluding all extracellular lipid. Thus muscle attenuation determined by CT likely reflected lipid contained in both extracellular and intracellular depots, whereas the lipid contained within the biopsy samples was assumed largely to reflect intracellular depots. Moreover, a pixel determined by CT that contains both adipose tissue and muscle will exhibit attenuation values intermediate of the two tissues. Factors such as an alteration in muscle protein, perfusion, or extracellular water content might also affect muscle attenuation; thus it is unlikely that muscle lipid content is the only factor that contributes to altered muscle attenuation.
The primary limitation of this CT method is that a direct measurement of muscle lipid content is not possible. Moreover, it is not possible with this technique to assess whether the lipid within muscle is intracellular or outside the myocyte. Other noninvasive imaging methods such as magnetic resonance imaging could provide a direct quantification of muscle lipid content in vivo without the exposure to ionizing radiation. In addition, it has been recently demonstrated that proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy is capable of discerning intra- and extracellular lipid in vivo (1, 22, 24, 30). Nevertheless, the radiation exposure in conventional single-slice or multislice helical CT scanning as performed in the present investigation is relatively low, and the speed, cost, and availability of CT make it suited for large-scale clinical investigation.
In summary, this study has determined that skeletal muscle attenuation determined by CT is associated with lipid contained within muscle. These data support the claims made by several investigations that decreased muscle attenuation is indicative of an increased lipid content. This CT method represents a noninvasive means to determine the relative lipid content within muscle between subjects or in individual subjects as a result of clinical intervention. Skeletal muscle attenuation measured with CT may provide further insight into the implications of skeletal muscle lipid with respect to energy metabolism, obesity and insulin resistance. Studies using this method may also provide knowledge regarding the effects of fatty infiltration of muscle in association with aging and impaired muscle function.
| |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
We thank the research volunteers for participation and cooperation. We also acknowledge the superb support of the research staffs at the General Clinical Research Center; at the Obesity and Nutrition Research Center; and, in particular, at the Department of Radiology (University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA). In addition, we acknowledge the contributions of Sue Andreko for work on muscle biochemistry.
| |
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
This project was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants K01 AG-00851-02 (to B. H. Goodpaster), R01 DK-49200-04 (D. E. Kelley), 5M01RR-00056 (General Clinical Research Center), and 1P30DK-46204 (Obesity and Nutrition Research Center).
At the time of these studies, R. Ross was a visiting Professor from the School of Physical and Health Education, Queen's University (Kingston, ON, Canada).
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: B. H. Goodpaster, E1140 Biomedical Science Tower, Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261 (E-mail: bgood+{at}pitt.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 9 December 1999; accepted in final form 28 February 2000.
| |
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
|
|---|
1.
Boesch, C,
Slotboom J,
Hoppeler H,
and
Kreis R.
In vivo determination of intra-myocellular lipids in human muscle by means of localized 1H-MR-spectroscopy.
Magn Reson Med
37:
484-493,
1997[ISI][Medline].
2.
Bushberg, JT,
Seibert JA,
Leidholdt EMJ,
and
Boone JM.
X-ray computed tomography.
In: The Essentials of Medical Imaging, edited by Passano WM.. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1994, p. 239-289.
3.
Dyck, DJ,
Peters SJ,
Glatz J,
Gorski J,
Keizer H,
Kiens B,
Liu S,
Richter EA,
Spriet LL,
van der Vusse GJ,
and
Bonen A.
Functional differences in lipid metabolism in resting skeletal muscle of various fiber types.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
272:
E340-E351,
1997
4.
Evans, W,
Phinney S,
and
Young V.
Suction applied to a muscle biopsy maximizes sample size.
Med Sci Sports Exerc
14:
101-102,
1982[ISI][Medline].
5.
Forsberg, AM,
Nilsson E,
Werneman J,
Bergström J,
and
Hultman E.
Muscle composition in relation to age and sex.
Clin Sci (Lond)
81:
249-256,
1991[Medline].
6.
Frayn, KN,
and
Maycock PF.
Skeletal muscle triacylglycerol in the rat: methods for sampling and measurement and studies of biologic variability.
J Lipid Res
21:
139-144,
1980[Abstract].
7.
Friedlander, AL,
Casazza GA,
Horning MA,
Buddinger TF,
and
Brooks GA.
Effects of exercise intensity and training on lipid metabolism in young women.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
275:
E853-E863,
1998
8.
Goodpaster, BH,
Kelley DE,
Wing RR,
Meier A,
and
Thaete FL.
Effects of weight loss on regional fat distribution and insulin sensitivity in obesity.
Diabetes
48:
839-847,
1999[Abstract].
9.
Goodpaster, BH,
Thaete FL,
Simoneau J-A,
and
Kelley DE.
Subcutaneous abdominal fat and thigh muscle composition predict insulin sensitivity independently of visceral fat.
Diabetes
46:
1579-1585,
1997[Abstract].
10.
Goodpaster, BH,
Theriault R,
Watkins SC,
and
Kelley DE.
Intramuscular lipid content is increased in obesity and decreased by weight loss.
Metabolism
49:
467-472,
2000[ISI][Medline].
11.
Guo, Z,
and
Jensen MD.
Intramuscular fatty acid metabolism evaluated with stable isotopic tracers.
J Appl Physiol
84:
1674-1679,
1998
12.
Hurley, BF,
Nemeth PM,
Martin WM,
Hagberg JM,
Dalsky GP,
and
Holloszy JO.
Muscle triglyceride utilization during exercise: effect of training.
J Appl Physiol
60:
562-567,
1986
13.
Jones, DA,
Round JM,
Edwards RH,
Grindwood SR,
and
Tofts PS.
Size and composition of the calf and quadriceps muscles in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. A tomographic and histochemical study.
J Neurol Sci
60:
307-322,
1983[ISI][Medline].
14.
Kelley, DE,
Goodpaster B,
Wing RR,
and
Simoneau J-A.
Skeletal muscle fatty acid metabolism in association with insulin resistance, obesity, and weight loss.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
277:
E1130-E1141,
1999
15.
Kelley, DE,
Slasky BS,
and
Janosky J.
Skeletal muscle density: effects of obesity and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.
Am J Clin Nutr
54:
509-515,
1991
16.
Kiens, B,
and
Richter EA.
Utilization of skeletal muscle triacylglycerol during postexercise recovery in humans.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
275:
E332-E337,
1998
17.
Lillie, RD,
and
Ashburn LL.
Super-saturated solutions of fat stains in dilute isopropanol for demonstration of acute fatty degenerations not shown by the Herxheimer technique.
Arch Pathol
36:
432-440,
1943.
18.
Liu, M,
Chino N,
and
Ishihara T.
Muscle damage progression in Duchenne muscular dystrophy evaluated by a new quantitative computed tomography method.
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
74:
507-514,
1993[ISI][Medline].
19.
Nagao, H,
Morimoto T,
Takahashi M,
Habara S,
Nagai H,
and
Matsuda H.
Computed tomography (CT) of the skeletal muscle in neuromuscular disorders: a comparison of CT with histological findings.
Brain Dev
19:
216-221,
1987.
20.
Nordal, HJ,
Dietrichson P,
Eldevik P,
and
Gronseth K.
Fat infiltration, atrophy and hypertrophy of skeletal muscles demonstrated by X-ray computed tomography in neurological patients.
Acta Neurol Scand
77:
115-122,
1988[ISI][Medline].
21.
Pan, DA,
Lillioja S,
Kriketos AD,
Milner MR,
Baur LA,
Bogardus C,
Jenkins AB,
and
Storlien LH.
Skeletal muscle triglyceride levels are inversely related to insulin action.
Diabetes
46:
983-988,
1997[Abstract].
22.
Perseghin, G,
Scifo P,
De Cobelli F,
Pagliato E,
Battezzati A,
Arcelloni C,
Vanzulli A,
Testolin G,
Pozza G,
Del Maschio A,
and
Luzi L.
Intramyocellular triglyceride content is a determinant of in vivo insulin resistance in humans.
Diabetes
48:
1600-1606,
1999[Abstract].
23.
Phillips, DIW,
Caddy S,
Ilic V,
Fielding BA,
Frayn KN,
Borthwick AC,
and
Taylor R.
Intramuscular triglyceride and muscle insulin sensitivity: evidence for a relationship in nondiabetic subjects.
Metabolism
45:
947-950,
1996[ISI][Medline].
24.
Rico-Sanz, J,
Hajnal JV,
Thomas EL,
Mierisova S,
Ala-Korpela M,
and
Bell JD.
Intracellular and extracellular skeletal muscle triglyceride metabolism during alternating intensity exercise in humans.
J Physiol (Lond)
510:
615-622,
1998
25.
Romijn, JA,
Coyle EF,
Sidossis LS,
Gastaldelli A,
Horowitz JF,
Endert E,
and
Wolfe RR.
Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
265:
E380-E391,
1993
26.
Ryan, AS,
and
Nicklas BJ.
Age-related changes in fat deposition in midthigh muscle in women: relationships with metabolic cardiovascular disease risk factors.
Int J Obes
23:
126-132,
1999.
27.
Sidossis, LS,
Gastaldelli A,
Klein S,
and
Wolfe RR.
Regulation of plasma fatty acid oxidation during low- and high-intensity exercise.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
272:
E1065-E1070,
1997
28.
Simoneau, JA,
Colberg SR,
Thaete FL,
and
Kelley DE.
Skeletal muscle glycolytic and oxidative enzyme capacities are determinants of insulin sensitivity and muscle composition in obese women.
FASEB J
9:
273-278,
1995[Abstract].
29.
Standl, E,
Lotz N,
Dexel T,
Janka HU,
and
Kolb HJ.
Muscle triglycerides in diabetic subjects. Effect of insulin deficiency and exercise.
Diabetologia
18:
463-469,
1980[ISI][Medline].
30.
Szczepaniak, LS,
Babcock EE,
Schick F,
Dobbins RL,
Garg A,
Burns DK,
McGarry JD,
and
Stein DT.
Measurement of intracellular triglyceride stores by H spectroscopy: validation in vivo.
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab
276:
E977-E989,
1999
31.
Wendling, PS,
Peters SJ,
Heigenhauser GJ,
and
Spriet LL.
Variability of triacylglycerol content in human skeletal muscle biopsy samples.
J Appl Physiol
81:
1150-1155,
1996
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  I. Miljkovic-Gacic, C. L Gordon, B. H Goodpaster, C. H Bunker, A. L Patrick, L. H Kuller, V. W Wheeler, R. W Evans, and J. M Zmuda Adipose tissue infiltration in skeletal muscle: age patterns and association with diabetes among men of African ancestry Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2008; 87(6): 1590 - 1595. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. J. Wright and B. C. Perricelli Age-Related Rates of Decline in Performance Among Elite Senior Athletes Am. J. Sports Med., March 1, 2008; 36(3): 443 - 450. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. E. Yeo, N. P. Hays, R. A. Dennis, P. M. Kortebein, D. H. Sullivan, W. J. Evans, and R. H. Coker Fat Distribution and Glucose Metabolism in Older, Obese Men and Women J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., December 1, 2007; 62(12): 1393 - 1401. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. R Piva, E. A Goodnite, K. Azuma, J. D Woollard, B. H Goodpaster, M. C. Wasko, and G K. Fitzgerald Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation and Volitional Exercise for Individuals With Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Multiple-Patient Case Report Physical Therapy, August 1, 2007; 87(8): 1064 - 1077. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Lo, L. E. Bernstein, B. Canavan, M. Torriani, M. B. Jackson, R. S. Ahima, and S. K. Grinspoon Effects of TNF-{alpha} neutralization on adipocytokines and skeletal muscle adiposity in the metabolic syndrome Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, July 1, 2007; 293(1): E102 - E109. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Azuma, L. K. Heilbronn, J. B. Albu, S. R. Smith, E. Ravussin, D. E. Kelley, and and the Look AHEAD Adipose Research Group Adipose tissue distribution in relation to insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, July 1, 2007; 293(1): E435 - E442. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. L Kuk, P. M Janiszewski, and R. Ross Body mass index and hip and thigh circumferences are negatively associated with visceral adipose tissue after control for waist circumference Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2007; 85(6): 1540 - 1544. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Bogaerts, C. Delecluse, A. L. Claessens, W. Coudyzer, S. Boonen, and S. M. P. Verschueren Impact of Whole-Body Vibration Training Versus Fitness Training on Muscle Strength and Muscle Mass in Older Men: A 1-Year Randomized Controlled Trial J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., June 1, 2007; 62(6): 630 - 635. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. J. Prior, L. J. Joseph, J. Brandauer, L. I. Katzel, J. M. Hagberg, and A. S. Ryan Reduction in Midthigh Low-Density Muscle with Aerobic Exercise Training and Weight Loss Impacts Glucose Tolerance in Older Men J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2007; 92(3): 880 - 886. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Mazzali, V. Di Francesco, E. Zoico, F. Fantin, G. Zamboni, C. Benati, V. Bambara, M. Negri, O. Bosello, and M. Zamboni Interrelations between fat distribution, muscle lipid content, adipocytokines, and insulin resistance: effect of moderate weight loss in older women. Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2006; 84(5): 1193 - 1199. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. H. Goodpaster, S. W. Park, T. B. Harris, S. B. Kritchevsky, M. Nevitt, A. V. Schwartz, E. M. Simonsick, F. A. Tylavsky, M. Visser, A. B. Newman, et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: the health, aging and body composition study. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., October 1, 2006; 61(10): 1059 - 1064. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Franco, J. D Veldhuis, A. Iranmanesh, J. Brandberg, L. Lonn, B. Andersson, B.-A. Bengtsson, J. Svensson, and G. Johannsson Thigh intermuscular fat is inversely associated with spontaneous GH release in post-menopausal women with abdominal obesity. Eur. J. Endocrinol., August 1, 2006; 155(2): 261 - 268. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Zhang, A. M. Ackermann, G. A. Gusarova, D. Lowe, X. Feng, U. G. Kopsombut, R. H. Costa, and M. Gannon The FoxM1 Transcription Factor Is Required to Maintain Pancreatic {beta}-Cell Mass Mol. Endocrinol., August 1, 2006; 20(8): 1853 - 1866. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. E. Hicks, E. M. Simonsick, T. B. Harris, A. B. Newman, D. K. Weiner, M. A. Nevitt, and F. A. Tylavsky Trunk Muscle Composition as a Predictor of Reduced Functional Capacity in the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study: The Moderating Role of Back Pain J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., November 1, 2005; 60(11): 1420 - 1424. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Lee, J. L. Kuk, L. E. Davidson, R. Hudson, K. Kilpatrick, T. E. Graham, and R. Ross Exercise without weight loss is an effective strategy for obesity reduction in obese individuals with and without Type 2 diabetes J Appl Physiol, September 1, 2005; 99(3): 1220 - 1225. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Katsiaras, A. B. Newman, A. Kriska, J. Brach, S. Krishnaswami, E. Feingold, S. B. Kritchevsky, R. Li, T. B. Harris, A. Schwartz, et al. Skeletal muscle fatigue, strength, and quality in the elderly: the Health ABC Study J Appl Physiol, July 1, 2005; 99(1): 210 - 216. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. S. Soldevilla, M. F. McKenna, S. M. Wiggins, R. E. Shadwick, T. W. Cranford, and J. A. Hildebrand Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) head tissues: physical properties and CT imaging J. Exp. Biol., June 15, 2005; 208(12): 2319 - 2332. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. E. Hicks, E. M. Simonsick, T. B. Harris, A. B. Newman, D. K. Weiner, M. A. Nevitt, and F. A. Tylavsky Cross-Sectional Associations Between Trunk Muscle Composition, Back Pain, and Physical Function in the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., June 1, 2005; 60(7): 882 - 887. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. H. Goodpaster, S. Krishnaswami, T. B. Harris, A. Katsiaras, S. B. Kritchevsky, E. M. Simonsick, M. Nevitt, P. Holvoet, and A. B. Newman Obesity, Regional Body Fat Distribution, and the Metabolic Syndrome in Older Men and Women Arch Intern Med, April 11, 2005; 165(7): 777 - 783. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Visser, B. H. Goodpaster, S. B. Kritchevsky, A. B. Newman, M. Nevitt, S. M. Rubin, E. M. Simonsick, T. B. Harris, and for the Health ABC Study Muscle Mass, Muscle Strength, and Muscle Fat Infiltration as Predictors of Incident Mobility Limitations in Well-Functioning Older Persons J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., March 1, 2005; 60(3): 324 - 333. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. D. Driscoll, G. E. Meininger, K. Ljungquist, C. Hadigan, M. Torriani, A. Klibanski, W. R. Frontera, and S. Grinspoon Differential Effects of Metformin and Exercise on Muscle Adiposity and Metabolic Indices in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Patients J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2004; 89(5): 2171 - 2178. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. E. Kelley, L. H. Kuller, T. M. McKolanis, P. Harper, J. Mancino, and S. Kalhan Effects of Moderate Weight Loss and Orlistat on Insulin Resistance, Regional Adiposity, and Fatty Acids in Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Care, January 1, 2004; 27(1): 33 - 40. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
