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1 Fondazione Don C. Gnocchi-ONLUS, We studied chest wall kinematics and
respiratory muscle action in five untrained healthy men walking on a
motor-driven treadmill at 2 and 4 miles/h with constant grade (0%).
The chest wall volume (Vcw), assessed by using the ELITE system, was
modeled as the sum of the volumes of the lung-apposed rib cage (Vrc,p),
diaphragm-apposed rib cage (Vrc,a), and abdomen (Vab). Esophageal and
gastric pressures were measured simultaneously. Velocity of shortening
(Vdi) and power
[
respiratory kinematics; walking; diaphragm; power; velocity of
shortening
CHEST WALL KINEMATICS evaluation is a prerequisite to
understanding the function of the respiratory muscles and their
coordinated action in producing chest wall displacement. Most of the
previous studies on chest wall kinematics are based on the
two-compartment chest wall model proposed by Konno and Mead (21).
According to this model, the chest wall is made up of the rib cage and
the abdominal compartments, each behaving with a single degree of freedom so that changes in volume of each compartment can be measured by a single dimension. However, it has been shown that the chest wall
moves with more than two degrees of freedom during both exercise (1,
15, 17) and even quiet breathing (29). According to Ward et al. (29)
the rib cage is made up of a lung-apposed [pulmonary rib cage
(RCp)] and a diaphragm-apposed [abdominal rib cage
(RCa)] compartment.
An optical reflectance motion analysis (ELITE) system for kinematic
analysis of chest wall motion has been recently developed (12). ELITE
is based on a TV-image processor, allowing a three-dimensional assessment of volume change of the chest wall by automatically computing the coordinates of passive markers placed on the thorax and
abdomen. By using a marker arrangement specially designed to measure
the volumes of RCp, RCa, and the abdomen (Vrc,p, Vrc,a, and Vab,
respectively), this system has been proven to be reliable and accurate
in a number of experimental conditions (6). Dynamic measurement
obtained by combining respiratory pressure measurements with chest wall
compartmental volumes, determined by means of the ELITE system, has
recently permitted the assessement of changes in respiratory muscle
action relative to change in chest wall compartmental volumes in humans
performing cycling exercise (2).
Although exercise training by walking is widely used in pulmonary
rehabilitation programs, little data are available on chest wall
dynamics in walking humans. Wells et al. (30), by means of respiratory
inductance plethysmography (RIP), studied thoracoabdominal motion in
response to treadmill and cycle exercise in normal subjects. They found
that, whereas minute ventilation ( The above considerations support the need for studying, in healthy
humans during walking, the thoracoabdominal motion by means of a system
accurate in partitioning chest wall volumes into the contribution of
rib cage and abdomen. With this purpose in mind, we combined chest wall
compartmental volumes, determined by means of the ELITE system, with
simultaneous measurements of esophageal (Pes) and gastric (Pga)
pressures to measure the pressure provided by the different respiratory
muscle groups to displace chest wall compartments.
Subjects and experimental protocol.
We studied five untrained healthy male subjects. On average, their age
was 35 ± 2 yr, height was 170 ± 1 cm, and weight was 74 ± 6 kg. All subjects had a normal forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital
capacity (FVC; 103 ± 3 and 104 ± 6% of predicted values,
respectively) (10). All were nonsmokers and experienced in
physiological studies and in performing respiratory maneuvers. Written
informed consent was obtained after a description of the protocol,
which was approved by an appropriate Ethics Committee.
ABSTRACT
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
di = diaphragm pressure (Pdi) × Vdi] of the
diaphragm were also calculated. During walking, the progressive
increase in end-inspiratory Vcw (P < 0.05) resulted from an increase in end-inspiratory Vrc,p and Vrc,a
(P < 0.01). The progressive decrease (P < 0.05) in end-expiratory Vcw was
entirely due to the decrease in end-expiratory Vab
(P < 0.01). The increase in Vrc,a
was proportionally slightly greater than the increase in Vrc,p,
consistent with minimal rib cage distortion (2.5 ± 0.2% at 4 miles/h). The Vcw end-inspiratory increase and end-expiratory decrease
were accounted for by inspiratory rib cage (RCM,i) and abdominal (ABM)
muscle action, respectively. The pressure developed by RCM,i and ABM
and Pdi progressively increased (P < 0.05) from rest to the highest workload. The increase in
Vdi, more than
the increase in the change in Pdi, accounted for the increase in
di. In conclusion, we found that, in
walking healthy humans, the increase in ventilatory demand was met by the recruitment of the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume. ABM
action accounted for the expiratory reserve volume recruitment. We have
also shown that the diaphragm acts mainly as a flow generator. The rib
cage distortion, although measurable, is minimized by the coordinated
action of respiratory muscles.
INTRODUCTION
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
E) at a
given workload was higher during cycling than during walking, exercise
modality did not induce differences in the relative contributions of
the rib cage and abdomen to tidal volume
(VT). Their results are
questionable because 1) rib cage
volume and Vab were measured with RIP, a method subject to error, the
volume being inferred from cross-sectional area changes; and
2) with RIP, breathing pattern
evaluation is reliable only when the rib cage and abdomen behave with
only one degree of freedom.
METHODS
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
Compartmental volume measurements. Volumes of the different chest wall compartments were assessed by using the ELITE system, which allows computation of the 3-dimensional coordinates of 89 surface markers applied on the chest wall surface with high accuracy (6). The markers, small hemispheres (5 mm in diameter) coated with reflective paper, were placed circumferentially in seven horizontal rows between the clavicles and the anterior superior iliac spine. Along the horizontal rows, the markers were arranged anteriorly and posteriorly in five vertical columns, and there was an additional bilateral column in the midaxillary line. In agreement with Cala et al. (6), the anatomic landmarks for the horizontal rows were 1) the clavicular line, 2) the manubriosternal joint, 3) the nipples, 4) the xiphoid process, 5) the lower costal margin, 6) umbilicus, and 7) anterior superior iliac spine. The landmarks for the vertical rows were 1) the midlines, 2) both anterior and posterior axillary lines, 3) the midpoint of the interval between the midline and the anterior axillary lines, and 4) the midaxillary lines. To provide better detail of the costal margin, an extra marker was added bilaterally at the midpoint between the xiphoid and the most lateral portion of the tenth rib; two markers were added in the region overlying the lung-apposed rib cage (i.ei., RCp) and two markers in the corresponding posterior positions. As a result, there were 42 anterior markers, 37 posterior markers, and 10 lateral markers. The boundary between RCp and RCa was assumed to be at the level of xiphoid, and the boundary between RCa and the abdominal compartment was along the lower costal margin anteriorly and at the level of the lowest point of the lower costal margin posteriorly.
The coordinates of the markers were evaluated with a system configuration of four TV cameras (2 in front of and 2 behind the subject) at a sampling rate of 25 Hz. Starting from the marker coordinates, the thoracoabdominal volumes were computed by triangulating the surface. For closure of surface triangulation, additional phantom markers were constructed as the average position of surrounding points at the center of the caudal and cephalad extremes of the trunk. Volumes were calculated from the surface triangulation between the marker points. The chest wall volume (Vcw) was modeled as the sum of Vrc,p, Vrc,a, and Vab. From VT and respiratory frequency,E was calculated.
VT was simultaneously measured
by using a water-sealed spirometer
(sVT). The volume accuracy of
the ELITE system was tested by comparing
VT to
sVT by means of the Bland and
Altman analysis (4). All respiratory cycles at rest and during walking
were pooled for each subject.
Pressure measurements.
Pes and Pga were measured by using conventional balloon-catheter
systems connected to two 100-cmH2O
differential pressure transducers (Validyne, Northridge, CA). Pes was
used as an index of pleural pressure and Pga as that of abdominal
pressure (Pab). From the pressure signals, we measured the following:
Pes and Pga at end inspiration
(PesEI and
PgaEI, respectively) and end expiration (PesEE and
PgaEE, respectively) at zero-flow
points. The transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) was obtained by
subtracting Pes from Pga. Pdi at end expiration during quiet breathing
was assumed to be zero. The difference between
PgaEI and
PesEI was defined as active Pdi
and that between PgaEE and
PesEE as passive Pdi. 
Pdi was
defined as the difference between passive Pdi and active Pdi. Pressure
and flow signals were recorded onto an IBM-compatible personal computer
by an RTI 800 analog-to-digital card and synchronized to the kinematic
data of the chest wall coming from the ELITE system and used to compute
volume changes.
Rib cage and abdomen relaxation measurements. Relaxation characteristics of the chest wall were studied before the walking test. The subjects, in a sitting position, inhaled to total lung capacity and then relaxed and exhaled through a high resistance. Relaxation maneuvers were repeated until curves were reproducible, pressure at the mouth returned to zero at functional residual capacity (FRC), and Pdi was zero throughout the entire maneuver. The best relaxation curve was retained.
To assess rib cage relaxation characteristics, Vrc,p was plotted against Pes. The best fitting linear (y = ab + x) regression for the Vrc,p-Pes curve was constructed to obtain a relaxation curve of RCp. The relaxation curve of the abdomen was obtained by plotting Pga vs. Vab from end-expiratory Vab to end-inspiratory Vab during quiet breathing; we found a curvilinear relationship to which we fitted a second-order polynomial regression (2). This was extrapolated linearly from higher and lower values of Vab. This method was preferred to the actual data obtained during relaxation because the latter were reliably obtained only at values of Vab greater than at FRC.Rib cage distortability measurements. The undistorted rib cage configuration was defined by plotting Vrc,p against Vrc,a during relaxation, when pleural pressure = Pab and the pressure distribution over the inner surface of the RCp and RCa is uniform. Rib cage distortion was evaluated by comparing Vrc,p-Vrc,a at rest and during walking to the undistorted rib cage configuration, according to the method of Chihara et al. (8). Thus we measured the perpendicular distance of the distorted configuration away from the relaxation line and divided it by the value of Vrc,p at the insertion point. This results in a dimensionless number, which, when multiplied by 100, gives percent distortion.
Respiratory muscle pressure measurements. The pressure developed by inspiratory and expiratory rib cage muscles (Prcm,i and Prcm,e, respectively) and that developed by the abdominal muscles (Pabm) were measured as the difference between the Pes-Vrc,p loop and the relaxation pressure-volume curve of RCp and between the Pga-Vab loops and the relaxation pressure-volume curve of the abdomen, respectively, according to the method of Aliverti et al. (2).
Diaphragm length (Ldi),
velocity of shortening (Vdi), and power
(di).
As shown by Mead and Loring (22),
Ldi is determined
by Vab (Vab) and Vrc,a (Vrc,a) displacements. Considering that
during both cycling (2) and walking end-inspiratory Vab is nearly constant, end-inspiratory changes in diaphragm length
(Ldi) are largely determined by end-inspiratory Vrc,a. As proposed by Aliverti et
al. (2), if Vrc,a/Vab during inspiration remains constant at
increasing levels of exercise
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(1) |
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(2) |
Vab/TI. On
this basis, it is possible to calculate both
Vdi and
di (di = Pdi · Vdi)
at rest and during exercise. It is important to mention that we could
not obtain the absolute values of
Ldi,
Vdi, and
di as the values of
k in Eq. 2 are unknown; however, we could obtain information about the changes in these variables in subjects during quiet breathing
and walking.
Gas measurements. To determine oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide output, expired gases were sampled from a mixing chamber by using paramagnetic and infrared analyzers (OSCARoxy multigas monitor, Datex). Heart rate and arterial oxygen saturation were measured with a pulse oximeter (Datex). The anaerobic threshold was detected at the carbon dioxide output inflection point by the V-slope method (3).
Step frequency measurements. Two matrix sensor foot switches [Bioengineering, technology and system, Corsico (MI), Italy], one for each foot, were used to assess step frequency. Each matrix sensor foot switch inserted in the sole of conventional sport shoes has three switches, corresponding to the anterior-internal and anterior-external region of the foot and heel, respectively. The switch signals were recorded into an IBM-compatible personal computer by the RTI 800 analog-to-digital card. The different combinations of switch signals gave different levels, each corresponding to the different phases of the step cycle. Briefly, level 0, level 4, level 3, and level 7 mean "no foot contact," "heel contact," "anterior-internal and anterior-external region contact," and "foot completely resting on the ground," respectively.
In walking humans, phasic intra-abdominal pressure (PIAP) changes have been shown in each step (14). To analyze the walking-related PIAP changes, spectral analysis of Pes, Pga, and step frequency during walking has been performed by means of fast Fourier transform. The spectral analysis of Pes and step frequency showed a peak ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 Hz and from 1.2 to 1.6 Hz, respectively; Pga showed a peak ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 Hz and a second one from 1.2 to 1.6 Hz. To ensure that PIAP changes were not contributing to the respiratory parameters obtained from the Pga signal, because of the second peak related to walking, the latter was gated by means of a 1-Hz low-pass filter.Data analysis. The limits of agreement between VT, measured by means of the ELITE system, and sVT were evaluated by means of a Bland and Altman analysis (4). Two-way ANOVA and Duncan's test were performed to compare each data set obtained during quiet breathing and at 2 and 4 mph of walking. A P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. All values are means ± SE.
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RESULTS |
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
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All subjects performed submaximal exercise, the maximum oxygen uptake achieved being 22.6 ± 3.0 and 38.0 ± 5.8% of predicted values (18) at 2 and 4 mph, respectively.
Both at rest and during walking exercise, the limits of agreement
between VT and
sVT ranged from 
0.0501 to
0.0580 liter.
Figure 1 shows end-inspiratory and
end-expiratory Vcw, Vrc,p, Vrc,a, and Vab at rest and during walking.
The vertical distance between end-expiratory and end-inspiratory volume
is the VT. Dashed lines show the
end-expiratory volume, set to zero, during quiet breathing at rest.
During the progressive increase in walking, there was a progressive
increase (P < 0.05) in
end-inspiratory Vcw (average increase at 4 mph, 0.43 ± 0.07 liter)
as well as a progressive decrease (P < 0.05) in end-expiratory Vcw (average decrease at 4 mph, 0.54 ± 0.22 liter). The progressive increase in end-inspiratory Vcw
was attributable to both the end-inspiratory Vrc,p (average increase at
4 mph, 0.27 ± 0.07 liter) and the Vrc,a increase (average increase
at 4 mph, 0.24 ± 0.04 liter, P < 0.01 for both). The end-inspiratory Vab did not change significantly (P > 0.05). Conversely, the
end-expiratory Vcw decrease was entirely due to the progressive
decrease (P < 0.01) in
end-expiratory Vab. At 4 mph, the decrease in end-expiratory Vab ranged
from 0.20 to 0.90 liter, averaging 0.56 liter for the group.
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Figure 2 shows Vrc,p-Vrc,a plots at rest
and during walking for each subject. Continuous lines represent
relaxation lines. In all subjects Vrc,p-Vrc,a loops were either on or
paralleled the relaxation line, with a slightly rightward shift. The
latter pattern indicates that the increase in Vrc,a was proportionally slightly greater than the increase in the Vrc,p; this was consistent with minimal rib cage distortion (1.5 ± 0.2 and 2.5 ± 0.2% at 2 and 4 mph, respectively).
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Slopes and intercepts of the Vrc,p-Pes relaxation line of individual
subjects (Vrc,p = a Pes + b) are reported in Table
1. In Table
2, coefficients of the abdominal
relaxation lines for three of five subjects are reported. The
relaxation curve of the abdomen was obtained from end-expiratory Vab to
end-inspiratory Vab during quiet breathing by a second-order polynomial
regression of the data of Pga and Vab and then extrapolated linearly
for higher and lower values of Vab, imposing continuity of the first derivative, as previously reported (2).
x1 and
x2 are the mean values of Pga at end-expiration and end-inspiration, respectively, during quiet breathing. For Pga < x1, the abdominal
relaxation line is the straight line Vab = c · Pga + d; for
x1 < Pga < x2, it is
described by the nonlinear equation Vab = e · Pga2 + f · Pga + g; for Pga > x2, the abdominal
relaxation line is the straight line Vab = h · Pga + i.
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Figure 3 shows Vrc,p-Pes dynamic loops for
each subject at rest and during walking. The continuous lines are the
relaxation lines. The Vrc,p-Pes loop departs from the relaxation line
more and more with increasing speed of walking, showing a progressive inspiratory rib cage muscle (RCM,i) recruitment; the maximal distance between the relaxation line and Pes trace indicates the peak pressure of RCM,i. As shown by dynamic loops crossing the relaxation line, expiratory rib cage muscle (RCM,e) recruitment occurred in two subjects
(subjects MM and
NA); in subject
NA, this pattern occurred at the highest speed of
walking; the maximal distance between the relaxation line and Pes trace
in these two subjects indicates the peak pressure of RCM,e.
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Figure 4 shows Vab-Pga dynamic loops for
each subject at rest and during walking. The continuous lines are the
relaxation lines. The maximal distance between the relaxation line and
Pga is the peak pressure of abdominal muscles (Pabm). Two quite
different respiratory patterns were observed at rest and during
exercise, respectively. At rest, in all subjects but one
(subject AS), Pabm and Vab increased
progressively during inspiration, indicating a shortening and a descent
of the diaphragm. During expiration, a progressive fall in Pabm
occurred together with a Vab decrease. The Vab-Pga plot had a positive
slope. Conversely, during exercise, expiration was characterized by a
progressive Pga increase with decrease in Vab, indicating active
expiratory abdominal muscle contraction; during inspiration, Pga
decreased and Vab increased. The loop of the Pga-Vab plot indicates the
progressive abdominal muscle relaxation. Figure 4 does not show
subject PG because he was not able to
perform satisfactory abdominal relaxation curves. The relaxation curve
of the abdomen for subject AS has not
been depicted because the active expiratory abdominal muscle
contraction present at rest did not allow us to obtain it.
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Figure 5 shows individual as well as mean
(±SE) resting and walking peak Prcm,i, Prcm,e, Pdi, and Pabm
values. Prcm,i, Pabm, and Pdi consistently increased
(P < 0.05) from rest to the highest workload.
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Figure 6 shows mean (±SE) changes ()
in Prcm and Pdi from beginning to end inspiration and in Pabm from end
inspiration to end expiration at rest and at different speeds of
walking. The Pdi did not consistently
(P > 0.05) change from rest (5.60 ± 1.10 cmH2O) to the walking
exercise (3.86 ± 1.17 and 7.36 ± 2.21 cmH2O at 2 and 4 mph,
respectively); Prcm increased (P < 0.002): it did not consistently change from rest (6.42 ± 0.84 cmH2O) to 2 mph (7.23 ± 1.17 cmH2O) but abruptly increased
(Duncan's test, P < 0.05) at 4 mph
(15.46 ± 1.60 cmH2O). In
contrast, Pabm increased progressively
(P < 0.02) during exercise: at 2 mph
it increased from 0 to 9.72 ± 2.98 cmH2O (Duncan's test,
P < 0.05) and at 4 mph further
increased to 11.78 ± 2.80 cmH2O (Duncan's test,
P < 0.05 compared with control).
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Figure 7 shows the plot of change in
passive Pdi vs. Vab. It is the progressive increase in Pdi at the
end of expiration (passive Pdi) from rest to 4 mph and the concurrent
decrease in end-expiratory Vab. Active Pdi, at the end of inspiration,
and Pdi also increased.
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The finding of a constant Vrc,a/Vab ratio (0.36 ± 0.06, 0.26 ± 0.04, 0.41 ± 0.09 at rest, 2 mph, and 4 mph, respectively; P > 0.05) allowed us to work out
Vdi and
di. Figure 8
shows the mean (±SE) increase in Pdi,
Vdi, and
di at rest and during walking exercise. The increase
in di (1.80 ± 0.62 and 4.86 ± 1.65 cmH2O · liter
1 · s1
at 2 and 4 mph, respectively; P < 0.04) was accounted for by an increase in
Vdi (0.46 ± 0.03 and 0.62 ± 0.05 l/s at 2 and 4 mph, respectively;
P < 0.0007) with no
significant change in Pdi (3.86 ± 1.17 and 7.36 ± 2.21 cmH2O at 2 and 4 mph,
respectively; P > 0.05).
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DISCUSSION |
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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We have found that in healthy humans during walking 1) VT increase is accomplished by the recruitment of both inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume; 2) the former is due to the RCM,i action and the latter to the abdominal muscle action; 3) the diaphragm acts mainly as a flow generator; and 4) rib cage distortion is minimal.
Critique of model and methods. Criticism of the model and methods has been extensively discussed by Kenyon et al. (20) and Aliverti et al. (2) in two recent papers. Here we shall discuss some points relevant to the present findings.
It has been shown that during exercise (1, 15, 17) and even during quiet breathing (29), the chest wall moves with more than two degrees of freedom, making magnetometry or RIP inaccurate in partitioning chest wall volumes into the contribution of rib cage and abdomen. By using a marker arrangement specially designed to measure Vrc,p, Vrc,a, and Vab (6), the ELITE system has been proven to be reliable and accurate during quiet breathing, relaxation maneuvers, phrenic nerve stimulation, and cycle exercise (2, 6, 20). In the present study, where dynamic Vcw and compartmental volumes were assessed during walking exercise, the volume accuracy was in keeping with that previously reported by others (2, 6, 20). The PIAP walking-related changes have been suppressed by means of a 1-Hz low-pass filter so that the remaining 77% Pga value represents the pressure developed by the respiratory muscles to produce ventilation. The estimation of Prcm and Pabm depends on the accuracy of the relaxation line. Because during walking end-expiratory Vab decreased at values lower than FRC, to assess Pabm the abdominal relaxation curve below FRC had to be used. The relaxation curve of the abdomen was obtained by plotting Pga vs. Vab from end-expiratory Vab to end-inspiratory Vab during quiet breathing and fitting the curve by a second-order polynomial regression. This was extrapolated linearly from higher and lower values of Vab, imposing continuity of the first derivative (2). This method was preferred to the actual data, obtained during relaxation, because the latter were reliably obtained only at values of Vab greater than at FRC. Because elastic behavior of the abdomen is not linear, being less compliant as Vab increases (28), the approximation with polynomial regression may result in overestimation of Pabm. As far as rib cage relaxation is concerned, to solve for Prcm, the restoring pressure developed by the rib cage distortion (Plink) must be taken into account (29, 20). In our study Plink was not assessed. However, in healthy humans during cycling exercise, Plink value was found to be small, <3 cmH2O, and essentially constant throughout the breath even at 70% of maximal load, accounting for <15% of the pressure developed to produceE (20). In the present study, where
maximum achieved workload was 40% of maximal load on average,
Plink was unlikely to be greater.
Thus we believe that the above considerations do not affect the present
results qualitatively even if Pabm and Prcm from nonextrapolated curves may be different in detail.
Vcw changes. The progressive increase in VT was attributable to the recruitment of both inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume. Early studies on quantitative partitioning of this change into the contributions of the rib cage and abdomen by using magnetometry or RIP showed a reduction in end-expiratory Vab (15-17, 25, 27) with no change (27) or decrease in end-expiratory rib cage volume (25). More recently Aliverti et al. (2), by using the ELITE system, have shown in healthy subjects performing cycling exercise that end-inspiratory Vab was nearly constant so that the increase in end-inspiratory lung volume was almost entirely due to rib cage expansion. They also found a consistent end-expiratory Vab reduction with no change in end-expiratory rib cage volume. Our data are in keeping with those reported by Aliverti et al. for a similar workload (40% of maximum workload). Taken together, both studies suggest that the expiratory reserve volume recruitment is a basic mechanism to increase ventilation, independent of the mode of exercise. In this regard, Aliverti et al. have provided insight into the important physiological significance of expiratory reserve volume recruitment for the mechanics of breathing during exercise. Ldi is dependent on both lung volume (5, 13) and chest wall configuration. Decreasing end-expiratory Vab with a constant end-expiratory Vrc (Vrc,p and Vrc,a) along with increasing end-inspiratory Vrc (Vrc,p and Vrc,a) with a constant end-inspiratory Vab during exercise are consistent with optimization of the diaphragm performance by increasing its preinspiratory length and preventing excessive shortening during inspiration. Similarly, Rcm,i performance is optimized by enhancing shortening during inspiration and preventing excessive preinspiratory lengthening (11, 19). Our data, in line with those of Aliverti et al. (2), indicate a similar behavior of respiratory muscles independent of the mode of exercise.
Rib cage distortion. Unitary rib cage behavior requires coordinated action of the respiratory muscles (20), and several studies have shown various degrees of departure from the undistorted configuration of the rib cage during increased ventilation (9, 23, 24, 26). We modeled RCp and RCa as two compartments mechanically coupled to each other (6), with nondiaphragmatic inspiratory muscles acting on RCp and diaphragm on RCa (20). Our data, showing a very small (2.5% on average at the maximum woarkload) rib cage distortion, are consistent with the data of Kenyon et al. (20) and Aliverti et al. (2) during progressive cycle exercise but are in contrast to the large volume distortion observed by others (29). In agreement with Kenyon et al. (20), the explanation of these discrepancies probably resides in the fact that we measured volume distortion while others assessed rib cage distortion by measuring rib cage dimensions across sectional areas. In general, our data indicate that respiratory muscles are coordinated during exercise so that rib cage distortion, although measurable, is minimized.
Respiratory muscle action. Respiratory muscle action during walking exercise has not been defined as yet. The analysis of volume-pressure plots contributes to providing insight into respiratory muscle coordinate action. On the one hand, the analysis of Vrc,p-Pes dynamic loops (Fig. 3) shows that the increase in inspiratory reserve volume resulted from the progressive increase in Rcm,i action. The Rcm,e action has been previously described in healthy humans during incremental cycling exercise (2). In the present investigation, Rcm,e action occurred in two subjects (subjects MM and NA) but in one of them (subject NA) only at the highest level of exercise.
On the other hand, as shown by Vab-Pga dynamic loops (Fig. 4), two different respiratory patterns were observed at rest and during walking, respectively. At rest the Vab-Pga positive plot indicated the shortening and the descent of the diaphragm. Conversely, the negative slope of the same plot, observed once the subject started walking, indicated abdominal muscle action during expiration followed by relaxation during inspiration. As the level of exercise increased, abdominal muscle action led to a decrease in end-expiratory Vab and increase in Pab, which contributed to passive Pdi. Although end-inspiratory Vab was unaffected by exercise, both end-inspiratory Vrc,p and Vrc,a increased. Thus, as with cycling exercise (2), we believe that during walking exercise the agencies by which end-inspiratory lung volume increases are the shortening of RCM,i, which inflates RCp, and the combined action of abdominal muscle progressive relaxation with diaphragm contraction, which inflates RCa. With the onset of exercise both Prcm,i and Pabm increased, whereas Pdi increased from 2 to 4 mph (Fig. 5). Our data are in keeping with those previously reported in healthy humans during exercise, showing that Rcm,i and abdominal muscles are immediately action recruited (2, 7). It has recently been shown (2) that during incremental exercise the diaphragm contracts almost isotonically, thus acting mainly as a flow generator, whereas rib cage and abdominal muscles develop the pressure to displace the rib cage and abdomen, respectively. Consistent with these findings, we showed thatPdi, i.e., the difference between
passive and active Pdi, did not change
(P > 0.05) from rest to walking
(Fig. 6), whereas Prcm, not consistently changed from rest to 2 mph,
abruptly increased (Duncan's test, P < 0.05) at 4 mph; Pabm increased
(P < 0.02) from rest to 2 mph and
further at 4 mph.
Aliverti et al. (2) emphasized that abdominal muscle gradual relaxation
during inspiration, observed in healthy subjects during cycling
exercise, simultaneously acts to prevent rib cage distortion and to
minimize Pdi. Minimizing Pdi during inspiration was considered as an
indicator of the diaphragm being able to generate high flows to meet
ventilatory demands. The smaller increase in Pdi relative to Prcm
and Pabm we found during walking exercise (Fig. 6) is consistent
with the hypothesis of Aliverti et al. The increase in
di observed at 4 mph compared with control was accounted for by a
Vdi increase
greater than a Pdi increase (Fig. 8). The present results, in keeping
with those previously reported in healthy humans during cycling
exercise, show that also during walking exercise the diaphragm is
mainly used as a flow generator.
In conclusion, we found that in walking healthy humans the increase in
ventilatory demand is met by the recruitment of the inspiratory and
expiratory reserve volume. Abdominal muscle action accounts for the
expiratory reserve volume recruitment. We have also shown that Rcm,i
and abdominal muscles are used as pressure generators, whereas the
diaphragm mainly acts as a flow generator. Rib cage distortion,
although measurable, is minimized by the coordinated action of
respiratory muscles.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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The writers thank P. T. Macklem for valuable comments and helpful suggestions on the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: A. Sanna, Fondazione Don C. Gnocchi-ONLUS, UOF di Riabilitazione Respiratoria, Centro di S. Maria agli Ulivi, Pozzolatico, Via Imprunetana 124, 50020 Pozzolatico, Florence, Italy (E-mail: riabrfi{at}tin.it).
Received 19 November 1998; accepted in final form 10 May 1999.
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REFERENCES |
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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, End-inspiratory values; 
,
end-expiratory values. Vertical distance between values is tidal volume
(VT). Dashed line,
end-expiratory volume, set to 0, during resting breathing. NS, not
significant; mph, miles/h.
, Inspiratory rib cage muscle pressure
(Prcm,i); 
, expiratory rib cage muscle pressure (Prcm,e); 
