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Muscle size and strength are increased following walk training with restricted venous blood flow from the leg muscle, Kaatsu-walk training

¹Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, and ²Department of Ischemic Circulatory Physiology, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Submitted 3 October 2005 ; accepted in final form 29 November 2005

	ABSTRACT

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Previous studies have shown that low-intensity resistance training with restricted muscular venous blood flow (Kaatsu) causes muscle hypertrophy and strength gain. To investigate the effects of daily physical activity combined with Kaatsu, we examined the acute and chronic effects of walk training with and without Kaatsu on MRI-measured muscle size and maximum dynamic (one repetition maximum) and isometric strength, along with blood hormonal parameters. Nine men performed Kaatsu-walk training, and nine men performed walk training alone (control-walk). Training was conducted two times a day, 6 days/wk, for 3 wk using five sets of 2-min bouts (treadmill speed at 50 m/min), with a 1-min rest between bouts. Mean oxygen uptake during Kaatsu-walk and control-walk exercise was 19.5 (SD 3.6) and 17.2 % (SD 3.1) of treadmill-determined maximum oxygen uptake, respectively. Serum growth hormone was elevated (P < 0.01) after acute Kaatsu-walk exercise but not in control-walk exercise. MRI-measured thigh muscle cross-sectional area and muscle volume increased by 4–7%, and one repetition maximum and maximum isometric strength increased by 8–10% in the Kaatsu-walk group. There was no change in muscle size and dynamic and isometric strength in the control-walk group. Indicators of muscle damage (creatine kinase and myoglobin) and resting anabolic hormones did not change in both groups. The results suggest that the combination of leg muscle blood flow restriction with slow-walk training induces muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, despite the minimal level of exercise intensity. Kaatsu-walk training may be a potentially useful method for promoting muscle hypertrophy, covering a wide range of the population, including the frail and elderly.

muscle hypertrophy; dynamic and isometric strength; anabolic hormones; ischemia

Low-intensity (20–50% of 1 RM) resistance training, combined with restricted venous blood flow from the working muscle (Kaatsu resistance training), may provide an alternative training method to the traditional HIT resistance training programs currently being used. In recent years, a number of publications have reported that Kaatsu resistance training can result in significant and rapid increases in muscle hypertrophy (2, 21, 23). Although it is not fully understood how Kaatsu training can achieve such rapid results, it is well established that Kaatsu resistance training produces changes in muscle hypertrophy similar to those produced by current HIT resistance training regimens, when training volume and frequency are similar (2, 21). A unique characteristic of Kaatsu training is that substantial muscle hypertrophy can occur using a training intensity as low as 20% of 1 RM (2, 23). Training at 20% of 1 RM is considered equivalent to the physical activities of daily life (10–30% of maximal work capacity), as evaluated by electromyography and metabolic cost measurements (4, 19). Therefore, we hypothesized that substantial muscle hypertrophy and strength gain could be achieved by combing Kaatsu with an activity of daily life, such as walking. Thus the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute and chronic effects of walk training combined with Kaatsu (Kaatsu-walk) on muscle size and strength, along with blood hormonal parameters.

	METHODS

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Subjects.   Eighteen healthy young men volunteered to participate in the study (Table 1). All subjects led active lives, with 8 of 18 participating in regular aerobic exercise. However, none of the subjects had participated in a regular resistance exercise program for at least 1 yr before the start of the study. The subjects were randomly divided into two training groups: walk training with restricted venous leg muscle blood flow (Kaatsu-walk, n = 9), and walk training without restricted leg muscle blood flow (control-walk, n = 9). One month before the start of the chronic training study, 11 of the 18 subjects participated in an acute study to examine the hormonal responses to a single bout of Kaatsu-walking (described below). All subjects were informed of the procedures, risks, and benefits, and signed an informed consent document before participation. The Tokyo Metropolitan University Ethics Committee for Human Experiments approved the study.

The acute exercise tests began at 9:00 AM, and venous blood samples were obtained from an antecubital vain before the start of exercise and immediately following (immediately, 15- and 60-min after exercise). Serum growth hormone (GH) and cortisol concentrations were determined by using a commercially available radioimmunoassay. Hematocrit was measured in duplicate by microcentrifugation of each blood sample. Oxygen uptake (O₂) during the Kaatsu-walk test was measured with the use of an automated breath-by-breath mass spectrometry system (Aeromonitor AE-280S, Minato Medical Science). Maximum O₂ (O_{2 max}) during treadmill running was measured on separate days. The subjects warmed up at 180 m/min at a fixed 0° grade for 5 min. The treadmill speed increased at a rate of 10 m/min for each successive 1 min of running until the subject became fatigued. O₂ and respiratory gas exchange ratio were measured every 30 s during treadmill running. Heart rate was also measured every 30 s during exercise using a heart rate monitor (Vantage XL, Polar Electro).

Training protocol and blood sampling.   The subjects in both the Kaatsu-walk and control-walk groups participated in 3 wk of supervised walk training. Training was conducted twice per day (morning and afternoon sessions, with at least 4 h between sessions), 6 days/wk for 3 wk. Following a warm-up, the subjects performed walking (50 m/min for five 2-min bouts, with a 1-min rest between bouts) on a motor-driven treadmill (Fig. 1). The walking speed and duration remained constant throughout the training period.

View larger version (90K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Walk training combined with restricted muscular venous blood flow from the leg muscle (Kaatsu-walk) on a motor-driven treadmill.

The control-walk group performed the same exercises at the same treadmill speed but without Kaatsu. Resting venous blood was drawn from each subject at baseline (pretesting) and 3 days after the final training (posttesting). All blood samples were obtained at the same time of day (9:00–10:00 AM) following an overnight fast (12–13 h). The subjects were counseled to refrain from ingesting alcohol and caffeine for 24 h before blood collection and not to perform any strenuous exercise.

1-RM strength measurements.   One week before training, the subjects were familiarized with the strength-testing equipment. Two types of lower body strength tests were performed: unilateral (right leg) leg press and bilateral leg curl (Nippyo, Tokyo, Japan). Proper lifting technique was demonstrated for the leg press and leg curl exercises, and all subjects performed practice lifts before attempting maximal effort lifts. Maximum dynamic strength (1 RM) was assessed before (baseline) and 3 days after the final training (posttesting) for each exercise. After warm up, the load was set at 80% of the predicted 1 RM. Following each successful lift, the load was increased by 5% until the subject failed to lift the load through the entire range of motion. A test was considered valid only when the subject used proper form and completed the entire lift in a controlled manner without assistance. On average, five trials were required to complete a 1-RM test. Approximately 2–3 min of rest were allotted between each attempt to ensure recovery.

Maximum isometric strength measurements.   Maximum voluntary isometric strength (maximum voluntary contraction) of the knee extensors and flexors was determined by using an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System 3). Subjects were seated on a chair with their hip joint angle positioned at 85°. The center of rotation of the knee joint was visually aligned with the axis of the lever arm of the dynamometer. The ankle of the right leg was firmly attached to the lever arm of the dynamometer with a strap. After a warm-up consisting of submaximal contractions, the subjects were instructed to perform maximal isometric knee extension at knee joint angles of 75° and maximal isometric knee flexion at knee joint angle of 60°. A knee joint angle of zero corresponded to full extension of the knee. Each effort was held for 4–5 s. The test was assessed at baseline and 4 days after the final training (posttesting).

Muscle-bone cross-sectional area estimation.   Muscle-bone cross-sectional area (CSA) for the midthigh was estimated by using the following anthropometric equation:

where r was the radius of the thigh calculated from midthigh girth of the right leg, and Q-AT and H-AT were ultrasound-measured (Aloka SSD-500, Tokyo, Japan) anterior and posterior thigh adipose tissue thickness, respectively. The estimated CV of this measurement was 1.2%. This measurement was carried out each morning before the training session and before posttesting.

MRI-measured muscle CSA and volume.   MRI images were prepared using a General Electric Signa 1.5-T scanner (Milwaukee, WI). A T1-weighted, spin-echo, axial plane sequence was performed with a 1,500-ms repetition time and a 17-ms echo time. Subjects rested quietly in the magnet bore in a supine position with their legs extended. The intervertebral space between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae was used as the origin point, and contiguous transverse images with 1.0-cm slice thickness (0-cm interslice gap) were obtained from the fifth lumbar vertebrae to the ankle joints for each subject. All MRI scans were segmented into four components (skeletal muscle, subcutaneous adipose tissue, bone, and residual tissue) by a highly trained analyst and then traced. For each slice, the skeletal muscle tissue CSA was digitized, and the muscle tissue volume (cm³) per slice was calculated by multiplying muscle tissue area (cm²) by slice thickness (cm). Muscle volume of an individual muscle was defined as the summation of the slices of muscle. We have previously determined that the CV of this measurement was 2.1% (1). An average value of the right and left sides of the body was used. This measurement was completed at baseline and 3 days after the final training (posttesting).

Hormonal analyses.   Serum GH, total testosterone, free testosterone, cortisol, and IGF-I concentrations were measured at S.R.L. (Tokyo, Japan) by commercially available radioimmunoassay kits (Daiichi Radioisotope Laboratory, Chiba, Japan). Radioactivity was measured by using an automated gamma counter (ARC-950, Aloka, Tokyo, Japan). Plasma activity of creatine phosphokinase (CPK) was measured with spectrophotometry for NADPH formed by a hexokinase and D-glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase-coupled enzymatic system. Plasma concentration of myoglobin was measured by using a commercially available radioimmunoassay (Daiichi Radioisotope Laboratory).

Statistical analyses.   Results are expressed as means (SD) for all variables. Statistical analyses were performed by a two-way ANOVA with repeated measures [group (Kaatsu-walk and control-walk) x time (pre- and posttesting)]. Serum hormones were analyzed with a 2 x 4 [group (Kaatsu-walk and control-walk) x time (preexercise, immediately post-, 15-min, and 60-min postexercise)] ANOVA with repeated measures. Post hoc testing was performed by Fisher's least significant differences test. Baseline differences between Kaatsu-walk and control-walk and percent changes between baseline and posttesting were evaluated with a one-way ANOVA. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.

	RESULTS

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Effect of acute Kaatsu-walking.   Serum GH concentration was elevated (P < 0.01) from before to the start of exercise to immediately and 15-min after exercise in the Kaatsu-walk group. The serum GH peaked to an average level 13 ng/ml as high as that of the preexercise level at 15 min after acute walking in the Kaatsu-walk group but not in the control-walk group (Fig. 2). Serum cortisol showed no change (P > 0.05) during the experiments in both the Kaatsu-walk and control-walk groups. Hematocrit increased by 10% from before to the start of exercise to immediately after exercise in the Kaatsu-walk group. There was no effect of acute exercise on hematocrit in the control-walk group. Mean O₂ was higher (P < 0.05) at the latter half of the walking session in the Kaatsu-walk group [708 ml/min (SD 96)] than in the control-walk group [623 ml/min (SD 77)] (Fig. 3). The percent change in O₂ between the Kaatsu-walk and control-walk groups was 14%. The mean O₂ during Kaatsu-walk and control-walk were 19.5% (SD 3.6) and 17.2% (SD 3.1) of treadmill-determined O_{2 max}, respectively.

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. Serum growth hormone and cortisol concentrations in response to acute walk exercise combined with and without Kaatsu. Significant differences from before exercise: P < 0.01.

View larger version (15K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Oxygen uptake (O2) and heart rate (HR) during walk exercise with and without Kaatsu. The exercise consisted of walking at 50 m/min for five 2-min bouts (from Walk 1 to Walk 5) with a 1-min rest between bouts. Significant differences between Kaatsu-walk and control-walk: *P < 0.05.

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Relative percentage changes in muscle-bone cross-sectional area (CSA) for the Kaatsu-walk and control-walk groups measured before (pre), during (every morning before the training session), and after (post) the training period. Significant differences from pretraining: *P < 0.05.

View larger version (75K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 5. Typical magnetic resonance images showing transverse sections of the midthigh taken before (baseline) and after (posttesting) the 3 wk of walk training with Kaatsu. The images show identical sections midway along the femur in the same subject (YW).

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 6. Dynamic [one repetition maximum (1 RM)] and maximum isometric strength responses following 3 wk of walk training with and without Kaatsu. Significant differences from pretraining: *P < 0.05.

View larger version (10K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 7. Relative maximum isometric knee extension and flexion strength responses following 3 wk of walk training with Kaatsu.

	DISCUSSION

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While this is the first study to demonstrate Kaatsu-walk training-induced increases in skeletal muscle size, other studies (2, 21, 23) have consistently shown Kaatsu resistance training-induced muscle hypertrophy. The mechanisms of Kaatsu-induced muscle hypertrophy and strength gain are not fully understood. However, several possibilities exist. GH, IGF-I, and other myogenic regulatory factors are believed to play important roles in Kaatsu training-induced muscle hypertrophy. A single bout of Kaatsu-walk exercise significantly increased serum GH concentration, even though the training intensity was very low (50 m/min). These results are consistent with a previously published study (2) that demonstrated elevations in the circulating GH concentration following low-intensity (20% of 1 RM) Kaatsu resistance exercise. In contrast, a single bout of regular walking in young men does not cause an elevation in serum GH concentration (5). Myostatin, a negative regulator of muscle hypertrophy, is upregulated by glucocorticoids like cortisol (9). In the present study, serum cortisol concentration was unchanged following Kaatsu-walk exercise. Muscle myostatin content decreased following 14 days of chronic restriction of muscular venous blood flow in a rodent model for Kaatsu training (13). In humans, interim analysis of DNA microarray data demonstrated downregulation of myostatin in the vastus lateralis muscle following short-duration, low-intensity Kaatsu resistance training (12). Myostatin expression was not measured in the present study. However, based on previous data and the current cortisol results, it is conceivable that myostatin may be downregulated or unchanged following Kaatsu-walk training. It was anticipated that resting serum IGF-I concentration would increase following Kaatsu-walk training, since our previous study had reported increases in resting serum IGF-I following Kaatsu resistance training (2). It is not clear why serum IGF-I did not change following 3 wk of Kaatsu-walk training, but it might be related to training intensity. Kaatsu-walking may not be of sufficient intensity, compared with Kaatsu resistance training, to alter circulating IGF-I levels. To date, there has been no systematic study on the interactions of altering frequency, intensity, or duration of Kaatsu training. More work needs to be done to better understand how changing these variables would affect muscle adaptation to Kaatsu training.

The level of training intensity (mechanical stress) is an important factor for skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength gain. However, the large mechanical stress associated with HIT resistance exercise poses a risk for injury, especially in elderly populations whose musculoskeletal system is weak. A unique characteristic of Kaatsu training is that substantial muscle hypertrophy can occur using a training intensity as low as 20% of 1 RM. In the present study, the mean value of O₂ during Kaatsu-walk exercise was 19.5% of O_{2 max}, whereas the O₂ during 40–70% of 1-RM resistance exercise is 33–47% of O_{2 max} (8). From a metabolic perspective, the intensity of Kaatsu-walk exercise is equivalent to the metabolic cost of 10–20% of 1 RM. Furthermore, blood markers for muscle damage (CPK activity and myoglobin) were not elevated after the Kaatsu-walk training. These data suggest that significant muscle hypertrophy can be achieved by low-intensity exercise that does not cause muscle damage. Therefore, Kaatsu training may be beneficial to a wider range of the population, including the elderly, who may not otherwise tolerate HIT resistance training.

Aside from its effect on muscle size and strength, Kaatsu training also causes metabolic adaptation in skeletal muscle that is similar to the metabolic response of muscle to ischemia (18). Kaatsu resistance training enhanced muscle glycogen storage and produced a greater net decrease in resting muscle ATP concentrations compared with resistance training alone (6). It was also speculated that Kaatsu training might alter GLUT4 translocation (6). In the present study, mean O₂ was 14% higher in the Kaatsu-walk group compared with the control-walk group. These results are consistent with a previous study (10) that reported a 15% increase in total body O₂ during supine exercise with restricted muscle blood flow compared with normal flow. Compared with total body O₂, leg muscle O₂ is not different during supine exercise, with or without local leg ischemia (20). In the present study, however, the increase in total body O₂ may be related to the increase in the mean integrated electromyographic activity of leg muscle during Kaatsu exercise (21) and/or a coordinated and integrated muscle chemoreflex induced by the metabolic strain of Kaatsu exercise (6).

In conclusion, the combination of leg muscle blood flow restriction (Kaatsu) with slow-walk training induces muscle hypertrophy and strength gain, despite the minimal level of exercise intensity. Kaatsu-walk training may be a potentially useful method for promoting muscle hypertrophy, covering a wider range of the population, including the frail and elderly.

	GRANTS

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This study was supported by Grant-in-aid 15300221 (to T. Abe) from the Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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The authors thank the students who participated in this study. We also thank Sumie Komuro for technical support in measuring MRI muscle size.

	FOOTNOTES

 

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: T. Abe, Dept. of Exercise and Sport Science, Tokyo Metropolitan Univ., 1–1 Minami-Ohsawa, Hachioji, Tokyo 192–0397, Japan (e-mail: musclethickness{at}yahoo.co.jp)

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

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This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Free A corrigendum has been published All Versions of this Article: 100/5/1460    most recent 01267.2005v1 Submit a response Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (9) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Abe, T. Articles by Sato, Y. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Abe, T. Articles by Sato, Y.