Journal of Applied Physiology AJP: Endocrinology and Metabolism
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

J Appl Physiol 100: 896-906, 2006. First published December 1, 2005; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01328.2005
8750-7587/06 $8.00
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF) Free
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
100/3/896    most recent
01328.2005v1
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Web of Science (11)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Billman, G. E.
Right arrow Articles by Kukielka, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Billman, G. E.
Right arrow Articles by Kukielka, M.

Effects of endurance exercise training on heart rate variability and susceptibility to sudden cardiac death: protection is not due to enhanced cardiac vagal regulation

George E. Billman and Monica Kukielka

Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

Submitted 19 October 2005 ; accepted in final form 23 November 2005


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 
Low heart rate variability (HRV) is associated with an increased susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation (VF). Exercise training can increase HRV (an index of cardiac vagal regulation) and could, thereby, decrease the risk for VF. To test this hypothesis, a 2-min coronary occlusion was made during the last min of a 18-min submaximal exercise test in dogs with healed myocardial infarctions; 20 had VF (susceptible), and 13 did not (resistant). The dogs then received either a 10-wk exercise program (susceptible, n = 9; resistant, n = 8) or an equivalent sedentary period (susceptible, n = 11; resistant, n = 5). HRV was evaluated at rest, during exercise, and during a 2-min occlusion at rest and before and after the 10-wk period. Pretraining, the occlusion provoked significantly (P < 0.01) greater increases in HR (susceptible, 54.9 ± 8.3 vs. resistant, 25.0 ± 6.1 beats/min) and greater reductions in HRV (susceptible, –6.3 ± 0.3 vs. resistant, –2.8 ± 0.8 ln ms2) in the susceptible dogs compared with the resistant animals. Similar response differences between susceptible and resistant dogs were noted during submaximal exercise. Training significantly reduced the HR and HRV responses to the occlusion (HR, 17.9 ± 11.5 beats/min; HRV, –1.2 ± 0.8, ln ms2) in the susceptible dogs; similar response reductions were noted during exercise. In contrast, these variables were not altered in the sedentary susceptible dogs. Posttraining, VF could no longer be induced in the susceptible dogs, whereas four sedentary susceptible dogs died during the 10-wk control period, and the remaining seven animals still had VF when tested. Atropine decreased HRV but only induced VF in one of eight trained susceptible dogs. Thus exercise training increased cardiac vagal activity, which was not solely responsible for the training-induced VF protection.

parasympathetic nervous system; ventricular fibrillation; myocardial ischemia; myocardial infarction

REDUCTIONS IN CARDIAC PARASYMPATHETIC control have been associated with an increase risk for sudden death (44). Kleiger and coworkers (3, 28) found that the patients recovering from myocardial infarctions with the smallest heart rate variability [HRV; a noninvasive index of cardiac parasympathetic regulation (6, 40, 47)] had the greatest risk of dying suddenly. The relative risk of mortality was 5.3 times greater in patients with an R-R interval variability <50 ms compared with patients with variability >100 ms. This initial observation has been confirmed in numerous clinical studies (1, 21). For example, the ATRAMI (Autonomic Tone and Reflexes After Myocardial Infarction) group found that postmyocardial infarction patients with either low HRV or reduced baroreflex sensitivity had a much greater risk of sudden death than those with well-preserved cardiac vagal function (31).

Similar results have been obtained in animal studies. Our laboratory previously reported that HRV was much lower in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation compared with animals resistant to these malignant arrhythmias (7, 12, 18, 22). In particular, the susceptible animals exhibited a much greater reduction (withdrawal) of vagal activity in response to either submaximal exercise (7, 18, 22) or acute myocardial ischemia (12, 18, 22) than did the resistant dogs. In a similar manner, bilateral vagotomy (13) or the cholinergic antagonist atropine increased arrhythmia formation (14), whereas cholinergic agonists or electrical stimulation of the vagus nerves increased ventricular fibrillation threshold, antagonized the effects of sympathetic stimulation, and decreased the incidence of ventricular fibrillation (4, 27, 29, 48). These data demonstrate that subnormal cardiac parasympathetic regulation increases the risk for malignant arrhythmias, whereas interventions that enhance cardiac vagal function can protect against ventricular fibrillation. However, to be an effective antiarrhythmic therapy, an intervention not only must increase baseline vagal activity but also must maintain this enhanced activity when the heart is stressed, as during myocardial ischemia. Indeed, low doses of cholinergic antagonists paradoxically increased the baseline cardiac vagal activity (30) but failed to maintain this increase in HRV when the heart was stressed by either submaximal exercise or a coronary artery occlusion (18). As a consequence, this intervention proved to be ineffective in the prevention of lethal arrhythmias induced by acute myocardial ischemia (18, 25).

It is well established that regular exercise can improve cardiac autonomic balance (increasing parasympathetic while decreasing sympathetic regulation of the heart) (5, 42). In both humans and animals, heart rate at submaximal workloads is lower in trained individuals compared with sedentary controls (5, 42), while the presence of a resting bradycardia is frequently used to confirm that training has been effective (17, 34, 45). Exercise training programs can increase HRV in patients recovering from myocardial infarction (32, 33, 35, 39) and may reduce the incidence of sudden death and arrhythmias in both human and animal models (8, 23, 32, 37, 38, 41). In a similar manner, meta-analysis of 22 randomized trials of rehabilitation with exercise after myocardial infarction found that exercise training elicited significant reductions in both reinfarction and the incidence of sudden death (38). In animals, regular exercise either increased the electrical current necessary to induce ventricular fibrillation (37, 41) or reduced the susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia (8, 24). However, the contributions of changes in cardiac autonomic balance to the protection afforded by exercise training were not extensively examined in these studies and remain largely to be determined. Although exercise training has been shown to increase baseline HRV in animals prone to lethal arrhythmias (24), the effects of this intervention on HRV when the heart is stressed (i.e., during exercise or coronary occlusion) remain to be determined.

Therefore, it was the purpose of this study to investigate the effects of exercise training on HRV and susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation using a conscious canine model of sudden death. Specifically, the hypothesis that exercise training would increase HRV even during physiological stress (exercise or acute ischemia) and, thereby, could prevent ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia was tested.

The present study demonstrates that exercise training improves cardiac autonomic function such that cardiac vagal regulation is maintained even when the heart is stressed by either exercise or acute myocardial ischemia in animals with healed infarctions. Furthermore, exercise training completely suppressed ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia. However, because atropine pretreatment did not reintroduce lethal arrhythmias in these dogs, the exercise-induced protection from ventricular fibrillation did not result solely from enhanced cardiac vagal regulation.


   METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 
The principles governing the care and use of animals as expressed by the Declaration of Helsinki, and as adopted by the American Physiological Society, were followed at all times during this study. In addition, the Ohio State University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee approved all the procedures used in this study.

Surgical preparation.   Sixty heartworm-free mongrel dogs weighing 15.4–24.5 kg (19.1 ± 0.4 kg) were used in this study. The animals were anesthetized and instrumented as previously described (7, 12, 18, 22). Briefly, using strict aseptic procedures, a left thoracotomy was made in the fourth intercostal space. The heart was exposed and supported by a pericardial cradle. The left circumflex coronary artery was dissected free of the surrounding tissue. Both a 20-MHz pulsed Doppler flow transducer and a hydraulic occluder were then placed around this vessel. Two pairs of silver-coated copper wires were also sutured on the epicardial surface of the heart and used to obtain a ventricular electrogram (from which heart rate and various indexes of HRV were measured, see below). One pair of electrodes was placed in the potentially ischemic area (lateral left ventricular wall, an area perfused by the left circumflex artery) and the other pair in a nonischemic region (right ventricular outflow tract). A two-stage occlusion of the left anterior descending artery was then performed approximately one-third the distance from its origin to produce an anterior wall myocardial infarction. This vessel was partially occluded for 20 min and then tied off.

HRV protocols.   The studies began 3–4 wk after the production of the myocardial infarction (see flow chart, Fig. 1). First, over the period of 3–5 days, the dogs learned to run on a motor-driven treadmill. The cardiac response to submaximal exercise was then evaluated as follows: exercise lasted a total of 18 min with workload increasing every 3 min. The protocol began with a 3-min warm-up period, during which the dogs ran at 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) at 0% grade. The speed was then increased to 6.4 kph, and the grade increased every 3 min (0, 4, 8, 12, and 16%). The submaximal exercise test was repeated three times (1/day). Before the third submaximal exercise test, a catheter was placed percutaneously in a cephalic vein to administer the muscarinic antagonist, atropine sulfate (50 µg/kg), 3 min before the end of the exercise period. On a subsequent day, with the dogs lying quietly unrestrained on a table, a 2-min left circumflex coronary occlusion was made. At least 48 h after the completion of these studies, the animals were tested for susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation using an exercise plus ischemia test that is described in the following section. Heart rate, left circumflex blood flow, and HRV were monitored continuously throughout the exercise or occlusion studies. These studies were repeated after the completion of the 10-wk exercise training or the 10-wk sedentary time period.


Figure 1
View larger version (23K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 1. Flow chart illustrating the sequences of events in this study. Three to four weeks after myocardial infarction, the dogs were classified as susceptible or resistant to ventricular fibrillation (VF) with an exercise plus ischemia test. The animals were then randomly assigned to either 10-wk exercise (Ex) training program or a 10-wk sedentary period. The exercise plus ischemia test was repeated at the end of the 10-wk period. n, No. of animals; defib, defibrillate.

 
Exercise plus ischemia test: classification of the dogs.   The susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation was tested as previously described (7, 12, 18, 22) (Fig. 1). Briefly, the animals ran on a motor-driven treadmill while workload progressively increased until a heart rate of 70% of maximum (~210 beats/min) had been achieved. During the last minute of exercise, the left circumflex coronary artery was occluded, the treadmill stopped, and the occlusion maintained for an additional minute (total occlusion time = 2 min). The exercise plus ischemia test reliably induced ventricular flutter that rapidly deteriorated into ventricular fibrillation. Therefore, large metal plates (11-cm diameter) were placed across the animal's chest so that electrical defibrillation (Zoll M series defibrillator, Zoll Medical, Burlington, MA) could be achieved with a minimal delay but only after the animal was unconscious (10–20 s after the onset of ventricular fibrillation). Of the 60 animals that underwent surgery, 21 animals could not be tested due to either death within 72 h of the myocardial infarction (n = 14, 23.3%) or occluder failure (n = 7). Thus the exercise plus ischemia test was performed on 39 of the original 60 animals. The occlusion was immediately released if ventricular fibrillation occurred. Twenty-six dogs developed ventricular fibrillation (susceptible), whereas the remaining 13 did not (resistant). Three susceptible animals were not successfully defibrillated and, as such, were not available for additional studies. This exercise plus ischemia test, using the same exercise intensity, was repeated after the completion of a 10-wk exercise training or a 10-wk sedentary time period (see below).

Exercise training protocol.   The susceptible (n = 23) and resistant dogs (n = 13) were randomly assigned to either a 10-wk exercise training period (susceptible, n = 9; resistant, n = 8) or an equivalent sedentary period (susceptible, n = 14; resistant, n = 5) (Fig. 1). The dogs in the exercise training group ran on a motor-driven treadmill for 10 wk, 5 days/wk, at ~70–80% of maximum heart rate. The exercise intensity and duration progressively increased as follows: 1st wk, 20 min at 4.8 kph/0% grade; 2nd wk, 40 min at 5.6 kph/10% grade; 3rd wk, 40 min at 6.4 kph/10% grade; 4th wk, 60 min at 6.4 kph/10% grade; 5th wk, 60 min at 6.4 kph/12% grade; 6th wk, 75 min at 6.4 kph/12% grade; 7th week, 90 min at 6.4 kph/12% grade; 8th to 10th wk, 90 min at 6.4 kph/14% grade. Each exercise session included 5-min warm-up and 5-min cooldown periods (running at a low intensity: 0% grade and speed of 4.8 kph). The dogs in the sedentary group were placed in transport cage for equivalent time periods but without exercise. All 17 animals (both the susceptible and resistant dogs) in the exercise group successfully completed the training program. Four dogs in the susceptible sedentary group died spontaneously between the 6th and the 10th wk of the sedentary period and were eliminated from the study. The exercise plus ischemia test could not be repeated in three of the sedentary susceptible animals due to failure of the coronary artery occluder, and these animals were also eliminated from the study (Fig. 1). Finally, the exercise plus ischemia test was repeated after the administration of the muscarinic antagonist atropine sulfate (50 µg/kg iv bolus 3 min before the occlusion) in the exercise-trained susceptible dogs (n = 8).

Citrate synthase assay.   The effects of exercise on skeletal muscle oxidative capacity were evaluated by measuring citrate synthase activity in the diaphragm. After the completion of the 10-wk exercise training or 10-wk sedentary studies, the animals were anesthetized (pentobarbital sodium, 50 mg/kg iv; Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL). The heart was rapidly removed, and tissue samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored in a –80°C freezer. At the same time, a small piece of the diaphragm was also placed in liquid nitrogen. The citrate synthase activity of this skeletal muscle was assayed using the modified technique described by Srere (46). The skeletal muscle was harvested at least 48 h after the last exercise session.

Echocardiography studies.   Left ventricular free wall thickness was determined by echocardiography 3–4 wk after surgery (i.e., myocardial infarction) and at the end of the 10-wk exercise training or the 10-wk sedentary period. These studies were performed before the animals were classified by the exercise plus ischemia test. Briefly, the dogs were lightly sedated with acepromazine (0.5 mg/kg im; Ft. Dodge Animal Health, Ft. Dodge, IA) before the studies. A conventional M-mode echocardiogram was obtained using a Sonos 1000 system (Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, CA) with a 5.5-MHz transducer.

Data analysis.   All data are reported as means ± SE. The data were digitized (1 kHz) and recorded using a Biopac MP-100 data-acquisition system (Biopac Systems, Goleta, CA). HRV was obtained using a Delta-Biometrics vagal tone monitor triggering off the electrocardiogram R-R interval (Urbana-Champaign, IL). This device employs the time-series signal processing techniques as developed by Porges (40) to estimate the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Details of this analysis have been described previously (6). Data were averaged over 30-s intervals during either exercise or the coronary occlusion. The following three indexes of HRV were determined: vagal tone index, the high-frequency (0.24–1.04 Hz) component of R-R interval variability; R-R interval range, the difference between the longest and shortest R-R interval for the same 30-s time period; and standard deviation of the R-R intervals for the same 30-s time period. The heart rate response to the exercise plus ischemia test was averaged over the last 5 s before the occlusion and at the 60-s time point (or ventricular fibrillation onset) after occlusion onset.

The data were compared using ANOVA for repeated measures (NCSS statistical software, Kaysville, UT). For example, the effect of exercise training on the HRV data (heart rate; vagal tone index, i.e., 0.24- to 1.04-Hz component of the R-R interval variability; SD of R-R interval; and R-R interval range) were analyzed using a three-way ANOVA [group (2 levels) x pretraining – posttraining (2 levels) x exercise level (7 levels), or occlusion time (6 levels)] with repeated measures on two factors (pretraining – posttraining and exercise level, or occlusion time). Comparisons between the susceptible and resistant dogs were made using a two factor (group x exercise level, or occlusion time) ANOVA with repeated measures on one factor (exercise level or occlusion time). A similar two-factor (group x pretraining – posttraining) ANOVA with repeated measures on one factor (pretraining-posttraining) was used to evaluate the effects of the interventions on left ventricular systolic wall thickness. Because repeated-measures ANOVA depends on the homogeneity of covariance, this sphericity assumption (i.e., the assumption that the variance of the difference scores in a within-subject design are equal across the groups) was tested using Mauchley's test (23). If the sphericity assumption was violated, then the F-ratio was corrected using Huynh-Feldt correction (23). If the F-ratio was found to exceed a critical value (P < 0.05), then the difference between the means was determined using Scheffé's test. The effect of exercise training on the incidence of ventricular fibrillation was evaluated using Fisher's exact test. Finally, citrate synthase activity data (exercise trained vs. sedentary) were evaluated using Student's t-test.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 
Confirmation of exercise training.   There was no significant difference in body weight between the sedentary and trained animals for either the resistant (trained, 20.4 ± 1.1; sedentary, 19.6 ± 1.8 kg) or the susceptible (trained, 20.0 ± 0.6; sedentary, 19.8 ± 0.8 kg) dogs. However, left ventricular systolic wall thickness was significantly larger (P < 0.025) in both susceptible (pretraining, 10.0 ± 0.6 vs. posttraining, 11.1 ± 0.4 mm; wall thickness increased by 10.1 ± 4%) and resistant (pretraining, 8.8 ± 0.5 vs. posttraining, 9.4 ± 0.5 mm; wall thickness increased by 8.0 ± 2.6%) animals after training but was unchanged in the sedentary dogs (susceptible pretraining sedentary 9.8 ± 0.4; posttraining sedentary 9.6 ± 0.3 vs. resistant pretraining sedentary 10.1 ± 0.7; posttraining sedentary 10.7 ± 0.4 mm), indicating that the training had produced a small ventricular hypertrophy. In the susceptible dogs, exercise training provoked significant (P < 0.0025) reductions in the peak heart rate response to exercise (pretraining 209.0 ± 7.4 vs. posttraining 184.4 ± 5.3 beats/min) that were accompanied by significant increases in R-R interval variability (e.g., vagal tone index, P < 0.04; pretraining 1.0 ± 0.3 vs. posttraining 2.4 ± 0.3 ln ms2), whereas these variables did not change in the sedentary animals (peak exercise response: HR, pretraining sedentary 209.4 ± 6.0 vs. posttraining sedentary 211 ± 5.3 beats/min; vagal tone index pretraining sedentary 1.2 ± 0.1 vs. posttraining sedentary 1.5 ± 0.3). Similar but smaller changes were noted for the exercise trained resistant dogs (peak exercise response: HR, pretraining 200.2 ± 3.4 vs. posttraining 178.4 ± 7.4 beats/min; vagal tone index, pretraining 2.4 ± 0.3 vs. posttraining 2.8 ± 0.4 ln ms2). Finally, citrate synthase activity was significantly (P < 0.02) higher in skeletal muscle obtained from exercise-trained (n = 10, 11.6 ± 1.0 µmol·ml–1·min–1) compared with sedentary (n = 10, 7.5 ± 1.4 µmol·ml–1·min–1) dogs. Because there were no differences between resistant and susceptible dogs, these data were pooled for the analysis. These data confirm the exercise training program was effective; that is, there was a significant skeletal muscle and cardiac adaptation induced by the training program.

Pretraining HRV responses.   The heart rate and HRV responses to submaximal exercise before training are displayed in Fig. 2. Submaximal exercise elicited significant (both P < 0.001) increases in heart rate for both the susceptible and the resistant dogs. Furthermore, the heart rate increase was significantly (group x exercise level, P < 0.01) greater in the susceptible dogs (peak heart rate change from preexercise values, susceptible 91.8 ± 2.0 vs. resistant 84.8 ± 3.1 beats/min) compared with the resistant dogs. The exercise-induced increases in heart rate were accompanied by significant (all, P < 0.001) reductions in all three markers of HRV (vagal tone index, i.e., 0.24- to 1.04-Hz component of the R-R interval variability; SD of R-R interval; and R-R interval range). Greater reductions (group x exercise level, P < 0.001) were again noted in the susceptible animals compared with the resistant dogs (Fig. 2).


Figure 2
View larger version (31K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 2. Heart rate and heart rate variability responses to submaximal exercise in animals susceptible or resistant to ventricular fibrillation. Exercise elicited significantly greater increases in heart rate that were accompanied by greater reductions in the various indexes of cardiac vagal regulation in the susceptible animals compared with the resistant dogs. Exercise levels: 1 = 0 kilometers per hour (kph)/0% grade, 2 = 4.8 kph/0% grade, 3 = 6.4 kph/0% grade, 4 = 6.4 kph/4% grade, 5 = 6.4 kph/8% grade, 6 = 6.4 kph/12% grade, 7 = 6.4 kph/16% grade. Values are means ± SE. *P < 0.01 susceptible vs. resistant.

 
The contribution of cardiac parasympathetic regulation to the HRV response to submaximal exercise was also evaluated by the intravenous injection of atropine during the last exercise level. Atropine provoked larger increases (P < 0.01) in heart rate (resistant, 28.2 ± 3.6 vs. susceptible, 17.9 ± 2.8 beats/min), and reductions in the HRV indexes (e.g., vagal tone index: resistant, –2.1 ± 0.2 vs. susceptible –1.1 ± 0.3 ln ms2) in the resistant animals compared with the susceptible dogs. In fact, heart rate and HRV were no longer different between groups after the atropine treatment.

The heart rate and HRV responses to the coronary occlusion at rest before training are displayed in Fig. 3. The coronary artery occlusion elicited significantly (group x occlusion time, P < 0.001) larger increases in heart rate in the susceptible compared with the resistant dogs. The coronary occlusion induced increases in heart rate were accompanied by larger reductions (group x occlusion time, P < 0.001) in all three HRV indexes (vagal tone index, i.e., 0.24- to 1.04-Hz component of the R-R interval variability; SD of R-R interval; and R-R interval range) in the susceptible animals compared with the resistant dogs.


Figure 3
View larger version (35K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 3. Heart rate and heart rate variability responses to a 2-min coronary occlusion in animals susceptible or resistant to ventricular fibrillation. The coronary occlusion elicited much larger increases in heart rate that were accompanied by greater reductions in the various indexes of cardiac vagal regulation in the susceptible animals compared with the resistant dogs. Pre, last 30 s before the coronary occlusion; Post, 1 min after coronary occlusion release (i.e., average over 30–60 s post release). Values are means ± SE. P < 0.01 susceptible vs. resistant.

 
Posttraining HRV responses.   The heart rate and HRV responses to submaximal exercise for the susceptible dogs after the 10-wk training or 10-wk sedentary period are displayed in Fig. 4. Submaximal exercise elicited significant increases in heart rate (P < 0.001) for both the sedentary and trained susceptible dogs. However, the heart rate increase was significantly (group x exercise, P < 0.001) greater in the sedentary dogs compared with the exercise-trained animals. The exercise-induced increases in heart rate were also accompanied by significant (all P < 0.001) reductions in all three markers of HRV (vagal tone index, i.e., 0.24- to 1.04-Hz component of the R-R interval variability; SD of R-R interval; and R-R interval range). Once again, greater reductions (group x exercise, P < 0.01) were noted in the sedentary animals compared with the exercise-trained dogs (Fig. 4). Similar, but smaller, differences were noted between the sedentary and trained resistant dogs (data not shown). After exercise training, the susceptible and resistant dogs exhibited similar heart rate and HRV responses to exercise; that is, no statistically significant differences were noted when comparing these animals (Fig. 5).


Figure 4
View larger version (30K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 4. Effect of the 10-wk exercise training or 10-wk sedentary period on the heart rate and the heart rate variability responses to submaximal exercise in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation. Exercise elicited significantly smaller increase in heart rate and smaller reductions in the various indexes of cardiac vagal activity in the exercise-trained dogs compared with animals that received a similar sedentary period. The posttraining response in the susceptible exercise-trained dogs was no longer different from that noted for the resistant (exercise trained or sedentary) dogs. Exercise levels: 1 = 0 kph/0% grade, 2 = 4.8 kph/0% grade, 3 = 6.4 kph/0% grade, 4 = 6.4 kph/4% grade, 5 = 6.4 kph/8% grade, 6 = 6.4 kph 12% grade, 7 = 6.4 kph/16% grade. Values are means ± SE. *P < 0.01 exercise trained vs. sedentary.

 

Figure 5
View larger version (26K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 5. Effect of exercise training on the heart rate and heart rate variability responses to submaximal exercise in animals susceptible or resistant to ventricular fibrillation. Note that there no longer were any differences between the susceptible and resistant animals. Exercise levels: 1 = 0 kph/0% grade, 2 = 4.8 kph/0% grade, 3 = 6.4 kph/0% grade, 4 = 6.4 kph/4% grade, 5 = 6.4 kph/8% grade, 6 = 6.4 kph 12% grade, 7 = 6.4 kph/16% grade. Values are means ± SE.

 
The contribution of cardiac parasympathetic regulation to the HRV responses to submaximal exercise was also evaluated after either the 10-wk exercise training or 10-wk sedentary time period by the intravenous injection of atropine during the last exercise level. Atropine injection elicited larger increases (P < 0.01) in heart rate and greater reductions (P < 0.01) in HRV in the susceptible trained (heart rate, 36.8 ± 3.2 beats/min; vagal tone index –2.3 ± 0.3 ln ms2) compared with the susceptible sedentary dogs (heart rate, 23.7 ± 5.4 beats/min; vagal tone index, –1.1 ± 0.5 ln ms2).

The heart rate and HRV responses to the coronary occlusion at rest after either the 10-wk exercise training or 10-wk sedentary period are displayed in Fig. 6. The coronary artery occlusion elicited significantly (group x occlusion time, P < 0.001) larger increases in heart rate in the sedentary animals compared with the exercise-trained dogs. The coronary occlusion-induced increases in heart rate were accompanied by larger reductions (group x occlusion time, P < 0.001) in the HRV (vagal tone index, i.e., 0.24- to 1.04-Hz component of the R-R interval variability; and R-R interval range) indexes in the sedentary susceptible compared with the susceptible trained dogs (Fig. 6). After training, the response to the coronary occlusion in the resistant and susceptible dogs was indistinguishable (Fig. 7). Thus, after the completion of exercise training, the susceptible animals exhibited a "resistant" HRV response pattern consistent with an increase in cardiac parasympathetic regulation. In contrast, the HRV response in the susceptible sedentary dogs did not change over time.


Figure 6
View larger version (34K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 6. Effect of the 10-wk exercise training or 10-wk sedentary period on the heart rate and the heart rate variability responses to a 2-min coronary occlusion in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation. The coronary occlusion elicited significantly smaller increase in heart rate and smaller reductions in the various indexes of cardiac vagal regulation in the exercise-trained dogs compared with animals that received a similar sedentary period. The posttraining response in the susceptible exercise trained animals was no longer different from that noted for the resistant (either exercise trained or sedentary) dogs. Pre, last 30 s before the coronary occlusion; Post, 1 min after coronary occlusion release (i.e., average over 30–60 s after release). Values are means ± SE. *P < 0.01 exercise trained vs. sedentary.

 

Figure 7
View larger version (31K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 7. Effect of exercise training on the heart rate and heart rate variability responses to a 2-min coronary occlusion in animals susceptible and resistant to ventricular fibrillation. Note that after exercise training there no longer were any differences between the susceptible and resistant dogs. Pre, last 30 s before the coronary occlusion; Post, 1 min after coronary occlusion release (i.e., average over 30–60 s after release). Values are means ± SE.

 
Effect of training on susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation.   The exercise plus ischemia test was repeated after the completion of the either the 10-wk exercise training period (susceptible n = 9, resistant n = 8) or 10-wk sedentary period (susceptible n = 7, resistant n = 5). The heart rate responses to the coronary occlusion are displayed in Fig. 8. The coronary occlusion elicited significant (P < 0.0002) increases in heart rate in both the sedentary and the exercise-trained susceptible animals but did not alter heart rate in the resistant dogs. Both the preocclusion and occlusion heart rate were lower (P < 0.04) in the susceptible exercise-trained animals compared with the sedentary dogs. However, the change in heart rate elicited by the coronary occlusion was similar in both groups either before (sedentary 31.0 ± 8.5, trained 32.4 ± 11.1 beats/min) or after the 10-wk period (sedentary 32.5 ± 7.4, trained 29.3 ± 11.9 beats/min). In addition, the exercise plus ischemia test provoked a similar ST segment depression in the sedentary and exercise-trained susceptible dogs both before (sedentary –4.8 ± 1.2 vs. exercise trained –4.7 ± 0.4 mm) and at the end of the 10-wk period (sedentary –4.8 ± 1.7 vs. exercise trained –4.8 ± 0.4 mm). When considered together, these data suggest that the coronary occlusion elicited a similar ischemic response before and at the end of the 10-wk sedentary or 10-wk exercise training period.


Figure 8
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 8. Heart rate responses to the exercise plus ischemia test in sedentary and exercise-trained animals susceptible and resistant to ventricular fibrillation. Coronary occlusion elicited a significant heart rate increase in the both the sedentary and exercise-trained susceptible animals. Heart rate before and during the coronary occlusions was reduced in the exercise-trained susceptible animals. Values are means ± SE. *P < 0.01 preocclusion vs. occlusion. #P < 0.01 sedentary vs. exercise trained.

 
Exercise training significantly (Fisher's exact test P = 0.0014) reduced the incidence of ventricular fibrillation in the trained susceptible animals, protecting all nine animals tested. In marked contrast, ventricular fibrillation was induced in all seven sedentary susceptible dogs. In addition, four susceptible animals died spontaneously during the 10-wk sedentary period. The exercise plus ischemia test failed to induce ventricular fibrillation in any of the resistant dogs in either the sedentary or the exercise-trained groups.

The exercise plus ischemia test was repeated after pretreatment with atropine in the susceptible exercise-trained dogs. Atropine significantly (P < 0.01) increased heart rate (36.8 ± 3.2 beats/min) and reduced HRV (–2.3 ± 0.3 ln ms2) both before and during the coronary occlusion (Fig. 9). Despite these changes, this intervention only reintroduced ventricular fibrillation, or any other arrhythmia, in one of eight dogs tested.


Figure 9
View larger version (12K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Fig. 9. Effect of atropine on the heart rate responses to the exercise plus ischemia in exercise-trained susceptible dogs. Atropine (50 µg/kg iv given as a bolus 3 min before the coronary occlusion) elicited a large increase in heart rate. Values are means ± SE. *P < 0.01 preocclusion vs. occlusion. #P < 0.01 No drug vs. atropine.

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 
The present study demonstrates the following: 1) Exercise or acute myocardial ischemia provoked greater increases in heart rate that were accompanied by greater reductions in three HRV markers (indexes of cardiac vagal regulation) in animals subsequently shown to be susceptible to ventricular fibrillation compared with animals resistant to malignant arrhythmias. 2) Endurance exercise training reduced heart rate and increased HRV even when the heart was stressed by either exercise or acute ischemia in the susceptible animals, such that the cardiac autonomic regulation was similar to that noted in resistant dogs. 3) Exercise training completely suppressed ventricular fibrillation induced by acute myocardial ischemia, protecting all nine susceptible dogs that completed the 10-wk exercise program. In marked contrast, an equivalent sedentary period not only failed to protect any of the susceptible dogs that completed the 10-wk period but also four dogs died spontaneously during this period. 4) Treatment with the cholinergic antagonist, atropine, provoked large increases in heart rate and reductions in HRV yet failed to reintroduce arrhythmias in the majority of the trained susceptible animals, triggering ventricular fibrillation in only one of eight dogs tested. These data suggest that exercise training can restore a more normal cardiac autonomic balance by increasing cardiac parasympathetic regulation and also reduce the incidence of malignant arrhythmias. However, this protection did not solely result from the training-induced enhanced cardiac vagal control. To the best of our knowledge, these findings represent the first demonstration that exercise training can improve cardiac parasympathetic control in diseased hearts even when the heart is stressed by acute myocardial ischemia or by an episode of submaximal exercise.

HRV and susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation.   HRV has gained widespread acceptance as a noninvasive marker of cardiac parasympathetic regulation (47). An ever-growing number of clinical studies have established a firm link between low HRV and a greater propensity for sudden death (1, 3, 6, 21, 28, 31, 40, 47). In agreement with the present study, our laboratory previously reported HRV was reduced by myocardial infarction and that the dogs with the greatest reduction were also more susceptible to ventricular fibrillation (7, 12, 18, 22) than those dogs in which cardiac vagal regulation was not impaired by the ischemic injury. In particular, the susceptible animals exhibited a much greater reduction (withdrawal) of vagal activity in response to either submaximal exercise (7, 18, 22) or acute myocardial ischemia (12, 18, 22). When considered together, these clinical and experimental studies clearly suggest that reductions in cardiac parasympathetic regulation play an important role in the development of sudden cardiac death. Thus one would predict that interventions that alter cardiac parasympathetic control should also alter susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation.

Exercise training and susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation.   Exercise training can alter autonomic neural balance by both increasing cardiac parasympathetic and decreasing sympathetic activity (5, 42). In both humans and animals, the heart rate at submaximal workloads is reduced in trained individuals compared with sedentary controls (5, 42). Furthermore, acetylcholine content and cholineacetyl transferase activity is increased in the hearts of trained rats (15). In humans, exercise training can increase HRV in patients recovering from myocardial infarction (32, 33, 35, 38, 39). In the present study, HRV was higher in trained dogs compared with the sedentary time-control animals. Importantly, the enhanced HRV was maintained even when the heart was challenged by either exercise or acute ischemia. Furthermore, atropine elicited much greater increases in heart rate in the exercise-trained animals than was noted for the sedentary dogs, data that are consistent with training-induced increases in the cardiac vagal regulation. Thus endurance exercise training can elicit changes in cardiac autonomic control that could, in turn, protect against ventricular fibrillation.

Regular exercise is also associated with a lower risk for arrhythmias and sudden death in both humans and animals (5). For example, Bartels et al. (2) found that the incidence of sudden cardiac death was inversely related to the level of regular physical activity; that is, sedentary individuals had the highest rate of sudden death (4.7 deaths per 105 person-years), whereas those in the most active group had the lowest (0.9 deaths per 105 person-years). Furthermore, meta-analysis of 22 randomized trials of rehabilitation with exercise after myocardial infarction found that exercise training elicited significant reductions in both the reinfarction rate and the incidence of sudden death (38). There was an overall reduction in cardiac mortality of 20% (due largely to the reduction in sudden death), a reduction that is comparable to the mortality reductions noted for beta-adrenoceptor antagonists (19, 26).

Experimental studies also report that exercise training decreases the risk for arrhythmias (5, 8, 24) or increases the electrical current necessary to induce ventricular fibrillation (37, 41). In agreement with the present study, Billman et al. (8) and Hull et al. (24) reported that daily exercise prevented ventricular fibrillation induced by acute ischemia in dogs with healed anterior wall myocardial infarctions, a protection that was accompanied by an improved baroreflex sensitivity (8) and an increase in baseline HRV (24). However, neither group examined the effects of training on autonomic regulation in response to physiological stressors such as exercise or acute ischemia. Improvement in the autonomic balance at rest might not provide sufficient protection against arrhythmias when the heart is stressed during dynamic situations. Indeed, the observation that low doses of cholinergic antagonists paradoxically increased the level of cardiac vagal activity (31) led to the proposal that this treatment could provide an acceptable means of enhancing cardiac parasympathetic activity in patients (10, 49). However, Halliwill et al. (18) and Hull et al. (25) both demonstrated that, although low doses of cholinergic antagonists increased baseline cardiac vagal activity (R-R interval variability), this treatment failed to prevent ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia. Halliwill et al. (18) further demonstrated that the enhanced baseline vagal activity was not maintained when the heart was stressed by either exercise or myocardial ischemia. As such, it was not surprising that this therapy failed to prevent ventricular fibrillation. It would appear that to be an effective antiarrhythmic therapy, an intervention must not only increase baseline vagal activity but, more importantly, must also maintain this enhanced activity when the heart is stressed.

The present study confirms and extends these previous studies. Training enhanced cardiac vagal control (as noted by increases in HRV), whereas an equivalent sedentary time period did not change cardiac parasympathetic regulation. The restoration of a more normal cardiac parasympathetic regulation, however, was not solely responsible for the protections associated with exercise training. The cholinergic antagonist atropine did not reintroduce malignant arrhythmias in the majority of animals, inducing ventricular fibrillation in only of one of eight dogs tested. Other factors must play a more central role in the protection that results from training. Exercise training also alters sympathetic regulation. Our laboratory previously reported that the susceptible dogs, in addition to reduced parasympathetic control, exhibit an enhanced beta2-adrenoceptor responsiveness (9). Therefore, training could also improve beta-adrenoceptor balance by decreasing the enhanced beta2-adrenoceptor and could, thereby, remove the trigger for malignant arrhythmias during myocardial ischemia. The effects of exercise training on beta2-adrenoceptor responsiveness merit further investigation.

Limitations of the study.   There are a few limitations with the present study that could affect the interpretations of the results. First, dogs have extensive coronary collateral vessels (36) that exercise training may (43) or may not (11) increase. Therefore, exercise training-induced increases in coronary collateral circulation could contribute to the protection noted in the susceptible dogs. However, acute myocardial ischemia provoked similar increases in heart rate in the susceptible sedentary (pretraining 31.0 ± 8.5 beats/min) and in the susceptible trained (pretraining 32.4 ± 1.1 beats/min) dogs before or after the 10-wk period (posttraining sedentary 32.5 ± 7.4, posttraining sedentary 29.3 ± 1.9 beats/min). In addition, the exercise plus ischemia test provoked a similar ST segment depression in the sedentary and exercise-trained susceptible dogs both before (sedentary –4.8 ± 1.2 vs. exercise trained –4.7 ± 0.4 mm) and at the end of the 10-wk period (sedentary –4.8 ± 1.7 vs. exercise trained –4.8 ± 0.4 mm). When considered together, these data suggest that the coronary occlusion elicited a similar ischemic response before and at the end of the 10-wk sedentary or exercise training period.

Second, myocardial infarction size could also contribute to the differences noted between susceptible and resistant dogs; animals with larger infarctions would be expected to have poorer ventricular function and a higher risk for ventricular fibrillation. Myocardial infarction size was not measured in the present study (the hearts were removed for in vitro studies). Therefore, we performed a retrospective analysis of animals in which infarction size had been determined and found that the susceptible dogs had larger infarctions (susceptible, n = 93, 17.7 ± 0.9%; resistant, n = 50, 12.6 ± 1.4%). Because the exercise program did not begin until after the myocardial infarction was healed (at least 4 wk after the induction of the infarction), it seems unlikely that training would reduce the infarction size in these animals.

Third, exercise training reduced the peak heart rate achieved during either exercise or acute myocardial ischemia. By decreasing metabolic demand, a lower heart rate per se could reduce the risk for arrhythmias. However, atropine pretreatment elicited large increases in heart rate, increases that exceeded the maximum heart rate values induced by the coronary occlusion before training, yet only modestly increased the arrhythmia frequency. Thus heart rate reductions, alone, cannot be responsible for the training-induced protection from ventricular fibrillation.

Fourth, it must be acknowledged that in the present study, cardiac vagal regulation was only indirectly evaluated using various measures of HRV. This study did not measure the parasympathetic nerve activity directly. However, previous investigations have verified that HRV provides an accurate representation of parasympathetic function (16). Additionally, in the present study, atropine effectively eliminated the heart rate and HRV differences noted between the susceptible and resistant dogs; that is, heart rate increased and HRV fell to zero in both groups after atropine treatment. These data are consistent with an atropine-induced inhibition (removal) of cardiac vagal regulation. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the method used in the present study provided reliable indirect measurements of cardiac parasympathetic regulation.

Finally, it is well established that both respiratory rate and tidal volume can alter HRV (20). As such, differences in the respiratory response after exercise training could indirectly contribute to the differences in the cardiac vagal indexes in the susceptible and resistant animals. Respiratory parameters were not measured in this study because of the profound panting response induced by exercise in both groups of animals (before and after exercise training). It is possible that, despite the panting, respiratory rate or tidal volume was altered in the trained animals. However, the coronary occlusion at rest did not elicit any obvious change in respiration (or induce panting) either before or after training, yet HRV was profoundly increased in the exercise-trained susceptible animals. Furthermore, our laboratory previously demonstrated that exercise elicited similar respiratory rate changes in resistant and susceptible dogs and that panting did not alter HRV (7, 18, 22). It seems unlikely that training-induced changes in respiration can explain HRV increase or the protection from ventricular fibrillation.

In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that exercise training improves cardiac autonomic function such that cardiac vagal regulation is maintained even when the heart is stressed by either exercise or acute myocardial ischemia in animals with healed infarctions. Furthermore, exercise training completely suppressed ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia. However, because atropine pretreatment did not reintroduce lethal arrhythmias in these dogs, the exercise-induced protection from ventricular fibrillation did not result solely from enhanced cardiac vagal regulation. The mechanisms by which exercise training improved cardiac vagal regulation and prevented ventricular fibrillation remain to be determined.


   GRANTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 
These studies were supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Grant HL-68609.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
 
The Authors Thank Moustafa B. Moustafa for performing the citrate synthase assay.


   FOOTNOTES
 

Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: G. E. Billman, Dept. of Physiology and Cell Biology, The Ohio State Univ., 304 Hamilton Hall, 1645 Neil Ave., Columbus, OH 43210-1218 (e-mail: billman.1{at}osu.edu)

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 GRANTS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Barron HV and Viskin S. Autonomic markers and prediction of cardiac death after myocardial infarction. Lancet 351: 461–462, 1998.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  2. Bartels R, Menges M, and Thimme W. Der einfluss von korperlicher aktivatat auf die inzidenz des plotzlichen herstodes. Med Klin 92: 319–325, 1997.[Medline]
  3. Bigger JT Jr, Fleiss JL, Steinman RC, Rolnitzky LM, Kleiger RE, and Rottman JN. Frequency domain measures of heart period variability and mortality after myocardial infarction. Circulation 85: 164–171, 1992.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Billman GE. The effect of carbachol and cyclic GMP on susceptibility to ventricular fibrillation. FASEB J 4: 1668–1673, 1990.[Abstract]
  5. Billman GE. Aerobic exercise conditioning: a nonpharmacological antiarrhythmic intervention. J Appl Physiol 92: 446–454, 2002.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Billman GE and Dujardin J. Dynamic changes in cardiac vagal tone as measured by time-series analysis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 258: H896–H902, 1990.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Billman GE and Hoskins RS. Time-series analysis of heart rate variability during submaximal exercise. Evidence for reduced cardiac vagal tone in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation. Circulation 80: 146–157, 1989.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Billman GE, Schwartz PJ, and Stone HL. The effects of daily exercise on susceptibility to sudden cardiac death. Circulation 69: 1182–1189, 1984.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Billman GE, Castillo LC, Hensley J, Hohl CM, and Altschuld RA. beta2-Adrenergic receptor antagonists protect against VF: in vivo and in vitro evidence for enhanced sensitivity to beta2-adrenergic stimulation in animals susceptible to sudden death. Circulation 96: 1914–1922, 1997.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Casadei B, Pipillis A, Sessa F, Conway J, and Sleight P. Low doses of scopolamine increase cardiac vagal tone in the acute phase of myocardial infarction. Circulation 88: 353–357, 1993.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Cohen MV and Steingart RM. Lack of effect of prior training on subsequent ischemic and infracting myocardium and collateral development in dogs with normal hearts. Cardiovasc Res 21: 269–278, 1987.[Web of Science][Medline]
  12. Collins MN and Billman GE. Autonomic response to coronary occlusion in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 257: H1886–H1894, 1989.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Corr PB and Gillis RA. Role of vagus nerves in the cardiovascular changes induced by coronary occlusion. Circulation 49: 86–97, 1974.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  14. De Ferrari GM, Vanoli E, Stramba-Badiale M, Hull SS Jr, Foreman RD, and Schwartz PJ. Vagal reflexes and survival during acute myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs with healed myocardial infarction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 261: H63–H69, 1991.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  15. DeSchryver C and Mertens-Strythaggen J. Heart tissue acetylcholine in chronically exercised rats. Experientia 31: 316–318, 1975.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  16. Eckberg DL. Physiological basis for human autonomic rhythms. Ann Med 32: 341–349, 2000.[Web of Science][Medline]
  17. Goldsmith RL, Bigger JT Jr, Steineman RC, and Fleiss JL. Comparison of 24-h parasympathetic activity in endurance trained and untrained young men. J Am Coll Cardiol 20: 552–558, 1992.[Abstract]
  18. Halliwill JR, Billman GE, and Eckberg DL. Effect of a vagomimetic atropine dose on canine cardiac vagal tone and susceptibility to sudden cardiac death. Clin Auton Res 8: 155–164, 1998.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  19. Held PH and Yusuf S. Effects of beta-blockers and Ca2+ channel blockers in acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 14, Suppl F: 18–25, 1993.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Hirsch JA and Bishop B. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia in humans: how breathing patterns modulate heart rate. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 241: H620–H629, 1981.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Hohnloser SH, Klingenheben T, Zabel M, and Li YG. Heart rate variability used as an arrhythmia risk stratifier after myocardial infarction. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 20: 2594–2601, 1997.[CrossRef][Medline]
  22. Houle MS and Billman GE. Low-frequency component of the heart rate variability spectrum: a poor marker of sympathetic activity. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 276: H215–H223, 1999.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  23. Huck S. Reading Statistics and Research. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn and Bacon, 2004, chapt. 14.
  24. Hull SS Jr, Vanoli E, Adamson PB, Verrier RL, Foreman RD, and Schwartz PJ. Exercise training confers anticipatory protection from sudden death during acute myocardial ischemia. Circulation 89: 548–552, 1994.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Hull SS Jr, Vanoli E, Adamson PB, De Ferrari GM, Foreman RD, and Schwartz PJ. Do increases in markers of vagal activity imply protection from sudden death? The case of scopolamine. Circulation 91: 2516–2519, 1995.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Kendall MJ, Lynch KP, Hjalmarson A, and Kjekshus J. beta-Blockers and sudden cardiac death. Ann Intern Med 123: 353–367, 1995.
  27. Kent KM, Smith ER, Redwood DR, and Epstein SE. Electrostability of acutely ischemic myocardium. Influences of heart rate and vagal stimulation. Circulation 47: 291–298, 1973.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Kleiger RE, Miller JP, Bigger JT Jr, and Moss AJ. Decreased heart rate variability and its association with increased mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 59: 256–262, 1987.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  29. Kolman BS, Verrier RL, and Lown B. The effect of vagus nerve stimulation upon vulnerability of canine ventricle: role of the sympathetic parasympathetic interaction. Circulation 52: 578–585, 1976.[Web of Science]
  30. Kottmeier CA and Gravenstein JS. The parasympathomimetic activity of atropine and atropine methylbromide. Anesthesiology 29: 1125–1133, 1968.[Web of Science][Medline]
  31. La Rovere MT, Specchia G, Mortara A, and Schwartz PJ. Baroreflex sensitivity, clinical correlates and cardiovascular mortality among patients with a first myocardial infarction: a prospective study. Circulation 78: 816–824, 1988.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. La Rovere MT, Bersano C, Gnemmi M, Specchia G, and Schwartz PJ. Exercise-induced increase in baroreflex sensitivity predicts improved prognosis after myocardial infarction. Circulation 106: 945–949, 2002.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  33. Leitch JW, Newling RP, Basta M, Inder K, Dear K, and Fletcher PJ. Randomized trial of hospital-based exercise training after myocardial infarction: cardiac autonomic effects. J Am Coll Cardiol 29: 1263–1268, 1997.[Abstract]
  34. Maciel B, Gallo L Jr, Neto JAM, Filho ECL, Filho JT, and Manco JC. Parasympathetic contribution to bradycardia induced by endurance training in man. Cardiovasc Res 19: 642–648, 1985.[Web of Science][Medline]
  35. Malfatto G, Faccjini M, Bragato R, Branzi G, Sala L, and Leonetti G. Short and long term effects of exercise training on the tonic autonomic modulation of heart rate variability after myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 17: 532–538, 1996.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  36. Maxwell MP, Hearse DJ, and Yellon DM. Species variation in the coronary collateral circulation during regional myocardial ischaemia: a critical determinant of the extent of the rate of evolution and extent of myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc Res 21: 737–746, 1987.[Web of Science][Medline]
  37. Noakes TN, Higginson L, and Opie LH. Physical training increases VF thresholds of isolated rat hearts during normoxia, hypoxia, and regional ischemia. Circulation 67: 24–30, 1983.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  38. O'Connor GT, Buring JE, Yusuf S, Goldhaber SZ, Olmstead EM, Paffenbarger RS, and Hennekens CH. An overview of randomized trials of rehabilitation with exercise after myocardial infarction. Circulation 80: 234–244, 1989.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  39. Oya M, Itoh HY, Kato K, Tanabe K, and Murayama M. Effects of exercise training on the recovery of the autonomic nervous system and exercise capacity after myocardial infarction. Jpn Circ J 63: 843–838, 1999.[CrossRef][Medline]
  40. Porges SW. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: physiological basis, quantitative methods and clinical implications. In: Cardiac, Respiratory, and Cardiosomatic Psychophysiology. New York: Plenum, 1986, p. 101–115.
  41. Posel D, Noakes T, Kantor P, Lambert M, and Opie LN. Exercise training after experimental myocardial infarction increases VF threshold before and after the onset of reinfarction in the isolated rat heart. Circulation 80: 138–145, 1989.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  42. Rowell LK. Cardiovascular adaptations to chronic physical activity and inactivity. In: Human Circulation: Regulation During Physical Stress. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 257–286.
  43. Scheel KW, Ingram LA, and Wilson JL. Effects of exercise on the coronary and collateral vasculature of beagles with and without coronary-occlusion. Circ Res 48: 523–530, 1981.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  44. Schwartz PJ and Zipes DP. Autonomic modulation of cardiac arrhythmias. In: Cardiac Electrophysiology: From Cell to Bedside, edited by Zipes DP and Jalife J. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 2000, p. 300–314.
  45. Smith ML, Hudson DL, Graitzer HM, and Raven PB. Exercise training bradycardia: the role of autonomic balance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21: 40–44, 1989.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
  46. Srere PA. Citrate synthase. In: Methods in Enzymology, edited by Lowenstein JM. New York, Academic, 1969, vol. 13, p. 3–11.
  47. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Circulation 93: 1043–1065, 1996.[Free Full Text]
  48. Vanoli E, De Ferrari GM, Stramba-Badiale M, Hull SS Jr, Foreman RD, and Schwartz PJ. Vagal stimulation and prevention of sudden death in conscious dogs with healed myocardial infarction. Circ Res 68: 1471–1481, 1991.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  49. Vybiral T, Glaeser DH, Morris G, Hess KR, Yang K, Francis M, and Pratt CM. Effects of low-dose transdermal scopolamine on heart rate variability in acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 22: 1320–1326, 1993.[Abstract]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
G. E. Billman
Cardiac autonomic neural remodeling and susceptibility to sudden cardiac death: effect of endurance exercise training
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2009; 297(4): H1171 - H1193.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
T. A. Dawson, D. Li, T. Woodward, Z. Barber, L. Wang, and D. J. Paterson
Cardiac cholinergic NO-cGMP signaling following acute myocardial infarction and nNOS gene transfer
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, September 1, 2008; 295(3): H990 - H998.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Exp PhysiolHome page
C. L. del Rio, T. A. Dawson, B. D. Clymer, D. J. Paterson, and G. E. Billman
Effects of acute vagal nerve stimulation on the early passive electrical changes induced by myocardial ischaemia in dogs: heart rate-mediated attenuation
Exp Physiol, August 1, 2008; 93(8): 931 - 944.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
B. J. Holycross, M. Kukielka, Y. Nishijima, R. A. Altschuld, C. A. Carnes, and G. E. Billman
Exercise training normalizes beta-adrenoceptor expression in dogs susceptible to ventricular fibrillation
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, November 1, 2007; 293(5): H2702 - H2709.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Circ. Res.Home page
T. Schober and B. C. Knollmann
Exercise After Myocardial Infarction Improves Contractility and Decreases Myofilament Ca2+ Sensitivity
Circ. Res., April 13, 2007; 100(7): 937 - 939.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Appl. Physiol.Home page
G. E. Billman and M. Kukielka
Effect of endurance exercise training on heart rate onset and heart rate recovery responses to submaximal exercise in animals susceptible to ventricular fibrillation
J Appl Physiol, January 1, 2007; 102(1): 231 - 240.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF) Free
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
100/3/896    most recent
01328.2005v1
Right arrow Submit a response
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me when eLetters are posted
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Web of Science (11)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Billman, G. E.
Right arrow Articles by Kukielka, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Billman, G. E.
Right arrow Articles by Kukielka, M.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
Visit Other APS Journals Online
Copyright © 2006 by the American Physiological Society.